СТАТИКА І ДИНАМІКА МОВИ: ПРОБЛЕМИ РІВНОВАГИ

The article deals with the investigation peculiarities of military vocabulary in the Ukrainian language on the example of the names of the weapon. The regimentation names of weapon allows us to set the position of each lexeme in a coherent structure, to identify a set of semantic-paradigmatic connections and relationships between words in a lexical-semantic group and outside, as well as follow logical and linguistic consistency military vocabulary.

In their article, lecturers from the Department of Ukrainian Philology for Foreign Citizens at the Educational and Scientific Institute of Philology of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv analyzed certain aspects of teaching military vocabulary in Ukrainian as a foreign language courses. Currently, there is a high demand for such courses in Ukraine, as foreign citizens serve in the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Associate Professor Svitlana Derba and Assistant Professor Oleksandra Kasianova reviewed contemporary sources for studying military vocabulary in Ukrainian as a foreign language classes and proposed teaching materials for its study. Currently, linguists understand a military term to be a special name that has a simple or complex formal structure (phrase) corresponding to a specific concept in the field of military affairs (military science, technology, military life, etc.). Types of military vocabulary include words and phrases that do not belong to the literary language, are used mainly in the oral speech of the military, and form various socio-functional classes of words consisting of lexical units that are heterogeneous in their functional characteristics. The authors provide a classification of military vocabulary in the Ukrainian language (nominal units denoting various types of troops, the staff sphere, general tactical and organizational actions, etc.). All units (201 in total) from the list of necessary vocabulary for military personnel (provided by active military personnel) were classified according to parts of speech and lexical-semantic groups. For example, nouns (soldier, commander, officer; shelling, room, tree, building, interval, contact; north, south, west, east; parts of the body, weapons), pronouns and their use (follow me, with me), verbs (work, run, stop, put, load, unload, hold, etc.), adverbs (often, more often, straight), numerals. Furthermore, it is assumed that working on the acquisition of this lexical material requires the teacher to combine methods and techniques for teaching Ukrainian as a foreign language. The main type of educational activity is oral speech activity. The work provides examples of tasks that can be performed in order to master military vocabulary.

The article analyzes the problem of writing the content for the course on the methodology of teaching the syntax of the Ukrainian language as a foreign language for philology students. The course is an essential element in the respective educational program for training future teachers of Ukrainian as a foreign language. The theoretical framework of the research is based on linguists’ works dedicated to syntactic topics. However, the basic language competencies in syntax, which are presented in «Standardized requirements: levels of proficiency in Ukrainian as a foreign language», are core for this course. The article also substantiates the need to expand on and detail some topics, taking into account the goals of student learning and practical challenges (word order in a sentence, stylistic means of syntax, syntactic synonymy, etc.). One of the frequent causes of errors in syntactic structures, already at the initial stages, is the imposition of the grammatical system of the native language, or the intermediary language, on the Ukrainian language. Cross-language analogies will facilitate learning and help avoid mistakes. Syntactic structures are not viewed as learning objectives, but rather serve as resources and models that can be used to express a certain meaning. The training aims to develop the ability to use these communicative constructions. At a high level, it is recommended to intensify and diversify the repertoire of syntactic structures with which a foreigner can express their thoughts and emotions, to provide alternative grammatical forms to express the same meaning. The communicative and functional syntax is considered a priority in the methodology of teaching the syntax of the Ukrainian language as a foreign language, since the ability and skills to verbalize thoughts are formed in the process of active use of constructions. Dialogue-centric and text-centric approaches are also efficient at various stages of learning. In teaching the syntax of the UFL (Ukrainian as a foreign language), we suggest combining different levels of analysis of syntactic units: formal-and-grammatical, semantic-and-syntactic, as well as communicative. As the analysis demonstrates, they are not opposed, but mutually complement each other. The perspective of this study is the development of a system of communicative exercises that will help students improve and enrich their speech. Key words: syntax, syntactic unit, method of teaching syntax, Ukrainian language as a foreign language, content language competence.

The article is devoted to the problem of neologization of the semantic and word-formation subsystem of Russian verbs. The trends of this process are determined in relation to the Old Russian language of the 15 th – 17 th centuries. The main object of study is suffixal verbal neologisms formed during a given period in language development according to traditional and new word-formation models. The peculiarities of verbal neologisms formation with prefixes are described using the material of derived verbs with prefixed formants do-, po-, ot- and za-. Particular attention is paid to the issue of confixation, which, as a regular method of word building, begins to take shape in the Old Russian language. The material for the analysis was comprised of the data from the "Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11 th – 17 th centuries". The application of a complex semantic and word-formation, as well as functional-semantic methodology for analyzing linguistic material has enabled the authors to identify trends in neologization of Old Russian verbal vocabulary: active formation of evolutive verbs and verbs with general semantics of activity and behaviour, the formation of new types of derivatives with the suffixes -irova-, -izirova-, -nicha-, regular occurrence in the language system of verbs, which denote particular types of verbal action, characterized by prefixes. It is shown that confixal derivatives appear as correlatives with the prefixal ones, and that these models can correlate and compete.

Problem. For four centuries the attempts were made to take away the language from Ukrainians by various means. The structure and logic of the Ukrainian language was destroyed during the Soviet period. Ukrainian language was completely assimilated to the Russian language. A language of Ukrainian-language stickers for Russian words has been created. The features of such an artificial Ukrainian language of the Russian way of thinking, which prevailed in the Ukrainian SSR have remained to this day. Therefore, it is important and timely to restore the structure of the language. Goal. The purpose is to acquaint the reader with the contents of the "Ukrainian Scientific Vocabulary" tutorial, which develops the principles of Ukrainian vocabulary according to the current standards of Ukraine. Methodology. Solving the tasks is based on observing the five main rules of word usage in accordance with the property by which the Ukrainian language, unlike Russian, is able to distinguish the names of actions, events, as well as their consequences, not by verbs only, but also by verbal nouns. Results. A number of words, word combinations and sentences are proposed in accordance with the latest standardized rules, which contributes to the improvement of the Ukrainian scientific style of speech and thinking. Originality/Novelty. The use of words and word combinations in accordance with the five main rules of word usage contributes to the restoration of the language structure and the development of the Ukrainian way of thinking. Practical value. The use of words and word combinations in accordance with the five main rules of word usage facilitates the perception and understanding of the text in use.

The influence of scientific terminology on the formation of the national language is manifested in the expansion of the terminological vocabulary of the Ukrainian language at the expense of words associated with new types of mental and practical activity, in interaction with the lexical system of living, spoken language, in categorical differentiation of lexemes (belonging to different categories – names processes, objects, phenomena, individuals, institutions), in the formation of the first system formations on the disparate terms basis. Tax terminology belongs to the ancient layers of the lexical system, its formation depends on many linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. The functioning of the tax vocabulary as a certain integral system, its development and ordering were the least studied of Ukrainian Linguistic issues. The least studied in linguistic-Ukrainian studies were the questions of the functioning of the tax vocabulary as a certain integral system, its development and organization. The analysis of the historical background of economic activity in the Ukrainian language aspect, is closely linked to the Ukrainian political history. In addition, we take into account the geopolitical situation that arose as a result of the distribution of Ukrainian lands for several centuries between different states, where Ukrainians followed to legislations of these countries, where the rights and status of the Ukrainian language manifested itself in different ways. Different linguistic and political orientations of the regions of Ukraine had influenced on the formation of the tax terminology on the Dnieper and Dniester territories. As follows, there were extralinguistic factors of analyzed terms borrowing which had the main influence on the process, such as: Integration processes in science, the high level of development of this science-applied discipline in the countries of Western Europe. The long existence of Ukraine in conditions of economic, socio-political and cultural dependence on neighbouring states. As a result of the historical and political factors, the stages of free, natural development of terminology, dominance in all spheres of special language, specifically Ukrainian vocabulary, as alternating with the stages of artificial Russification, polonization or Germanization of the economic vocabulary of the Ukrainian language with parallel withdrawal from the circulation of terms created on its own linguistic basis. The sources of the Ukrainian tax terminology were such languages as Latin, Greek, French, German, Lithuanian, Italian, English, Turkish, Arabic, Polish. The situation of uncertainty and ambiguity of approaches that has developed in Ukraine in the field of scientific language (scientific style in general) requires serious linguistic analysis and developing of specific recommendations for the creation and use of terms due to their solidity in science and the language, convenience, and the correspondence of the Ukrainian language system. That is why particular importance is the question of the correlation of the national language and foreign languages terms, the role of borrowing in the system of development modern Ukrainian terminology. The best option is to use national terms if they correspond to the optimal aesthetic, linguistic and cultural characteristics, psychological characteristics. The situation of uncertainty ambiguity of approaches which has developed in Ukraine in the field of the scientific language, (the scientific style in general),needs serious linguistic analysis and making specific recommendations as for creating and using terms, considering on their solidity in science and language, convenience, compliance with the Ukrainian language system.

Objective. The objective of the article is to study the features of youth slang and banter and their place in modern language systems; to investigate the specificity of the translation of youth slang and banter into Ukrainian from English and vice versa. Methods. The need to consider the formation of interactive relations between youth slang and banter in English and Ukrainian languages has led to recourse to the methods of historical and analytical approach, as well as analysis and generalization of scientific literature on the problems of youth slang and banter. Results. Youth slang is an integral part of expressive vocabulary and serves to enrich and diversify the process of communication, works of literature, reports and journalistic works. Already at the beginning of the research, it was clear that this is a special vocabulary that not everyone understands, therefore, for the sake of an effective comparative analysis in English and Ukrainian languages, the main difficulties of translating youth slang and banter were first of all solved and considered. This is a rather important stage, because in order to move on to the main ways of education, it is necessary to correctly translate this or that slang expression. Having researched and presented an analysis of various scientific works and opinions on this matter, we learned that this branch of linguistics has been and continues to be of interest to many researchers. They described slang vocabulary from different angles, trying to analyze the origin, distribution, representatives and conditions of distribution. When writing, it was found that, in addition to the ways of formation acceptable for linguistics, one should rely on the emergence of social groups, because they are the beginners who lay the foundation for the creation of jargonisms. The obtained results also have given us an understanding that jargon is gaining popularity among all strata of the population and because of this, it is often used without even understanding the meaning of what is said or written. But on the other hand, in some spheres of distribution, it acts as an effective and even necessary means of communication. The topic was not chosen by chance, a large number of examples and a wide field of distribution provided an opportunity to investigate the initial stages of the formation of jargonisms. In addition, we paid attention to neoplasms in this area. Observation shows that any lexical structure of the language is a dynamic organism. It is constantly in need of development, rejects outdated units and accepts new ones. Having characterized the examples related to the new phenomena of the world scale, we made sure that the slang vocabulary is capable of changes and transformations. Having analysed the jargon of Oxford and Kyiv-Mohyla Academy students, we can draw conclusions about vocabulary in both languages. First of all, a comparative analysis of different ways of formation in English and Ukrainian languages was carried out. We singled out the main methods and, based on examples, provided certain statistics regarding the composition of methods (in percentage) in both analysed languages. Moreover, the results showed a tendency towards the spread of one or another path in certain social groups. Another important issue was the study of the appropriateness of the use of jargon. As the study showed, when submitting certain literary works, periodicals, journalistic articles and materials for public review, it is necessary to monitor not only the quantity and quality of this vocabulary, but also the topic where it will look appropriate. After all, in pursuit of popularity and attractiveness, authors often oversaturate the text. Sometimes it causes dissatisfaction in the reader, and sometimes even disgust. Understanding that modern Ukrainian literature is filled with so much youth slang and banter gave us the opportunity to make an in-depth analysis, illustrated with samples taken from the works. Considering everything analysed above, we note that we encounter jargon in everyday life almost every day. Currently, it is used in many areas and we can now clearly define the signs of its use, formation and distribution.

Aims and objectives: This study aims to redress the paucity of research on the semantics of loanwords, by extending and empirically testing Backus’s ((2001). The role of semantic specificity in insertional codeswitching: Evidence from Dutch-Turkish. Jacobson, Rodolfo (Hg): Codeswitching Worldwide. Bd, 2, 125–154) Specificity Hypothesis – ‘Embedded language elements in code-switching have a high degree of semantic specificity’ (p. 128). Approach: Adopting a concept-based approach to examine loanwords in a large, reliable corpus, the study pursues the following question: Do loanwords have a high degree of semantic specificity relative to their receiving-language equivalents? Specificity is operationalized as an entropy measure of the target word’s environment, the assumption being that more specific words have less variety in their surrounding context. Data and analysis: To test this hypothesis, Anglicisms in a 24-million-word newspaper corpus of Argentine Spanish were processed in three stages: detecting loanwords, selecting semantic equivalents, and measuring specificity. Findings/conclusions: A Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test revealed that loanwords receive significantly lower entropy scores, that is, they are more specific than their Spanish equivalents. The results suggest a possible motive for adopting loanwords when terms already exist in the source language, namely, to utilize words that provide more nuanced meaning. Originality: Methodologically, this study offers innovative applications of computational methods to loanword research, employing a distributional model to measure entropy. Theoretically, it addresses an underrepresented aspect of loanword adoption, semantics, by extending Backus’s hypothesis to loanwords and increasing its scope to data often viewed as ‘monolingual’. Significance/implications: The conclusions offer novel perspectives on loanwords with existing semantic equivalents, often viewed as ‘unnecessary’ when compared to loanwords that introduce new concepts into the recipient language (e.g. blog). With the notion of specificity, we may understand these loanwords as disruptors to the semantic system of the recipient language, dividing up the semantic space formerly occupied solely by the native equivalent, thus increasing the level of nuance expressed in the original concept.

The study complements the information about the nature of the medical term within the framework of historical terminology. Purpose. The article discusses the linguistic features of medical borrowed terms denoting human diseases. Materials and methods. The material was medical scientific texts on surgery and pharmacology of 1835-1899 editions. The analysis used lexico-semantic, etymological and word-formation analysis of vocabulary, a comparative method of linguistic research. Results. The results of the study suggest that by the nineteenth century, the Russian scientific medical terminology of diseases was finally formed in the national language. The basis of the formation are lexical units of Greek-Latin origin, there were also borrowings from Polish, French, and English. Comparative analysis of terms in different languages has shown the presence of a large number of terms-internationalisms. Translated borrowings and calculus were used in the formation of terms. The study revealed the difficulty of proving the formation of terms by calculus. The analysis of medical terms revealed semantic differences in the source language and in the recipient language, which confirms: 1) the artificial nature of the formation of the terminological system, 2) the presence of national specificity of terms denoting diseases. Thus, the results of the study show that with the unity of the laws of human cognition, an individual understanding of the world picture is manifested in each language; the names of diseases formed on the basis of the national language reflect the popular understanding of diseases. Practical implications. The factual material and conclusions of the article can be used both in terminology and in the course of medical education.

This paper examines the lexemes of Arabic origin that entered the Russian language via French at different periods of time. The aim of the study is to identify the changes that have occurred as a result of their entry and assimilation into the Russian language. There are insufficient studies of borrowed lexemes of Arabic origin in the Russian language, which accounts for the scientific novelty of our research. The article presents the phonetic system of the Arabic language in comparison with the Russian phonetic system. The existing differences are analyzed based on lexemes of Arabic origin that entered the Russian language indirectly, through other languages, in this case through the French language. These differences are examined based on Arabicisms that entered the Russian language through French. An analysis of morphological, phonetic and semantic changes of borrowed lexemes is provided in comparison with the prototype. We analyze the semantic field of lexemes in the source language (Arabic), in the intermediary language (French), and in the receptor language (Russian). The results obtained showed that the lexemes that penetrate into the Russian language through an intermediary language are transformed, experiencing the influence of the intermediary language.

The city as a peculiar form of social organization is interesting for the representatives of many trends of scientific research: economists, sociologists, culturologists, historians, linguists. The subject of our interest is the functioning of the Ukrainian language in the cities of Bukovyna and Galicia at the end of the 19th century — the first half of the 20th century, in the urban environment of the Ukrainian diaspora settlement. Historical and socio-political conditions of the formation of the Ukrainian city koinй as one of the preconditions for the development of Ukrainian literature (particularly in the territory of Western Ukraine) — are still one of largely unexplored problems of Ukrainian linguistics — in both theoretical and practical aspects, which predetermines the relevance of the topic of our study. The aim of this article is the analysis of Ukrainian advertising texts at the end of the 19th century — the first half of the 20th century and identification of such lexical and syntagmatic units that can be classified as elements of the city koine. To perform linguistic analysis we have involved over 80 language units (words, nominative word combinations, word variants) used for the nomination of over 30 items of commodity circulation belonging to the following lexical-semantic groups: names of clothing, footwear and other details of the wardrobe; names of household items of urban dwellers (personal use items). For every word of the aforementioned lexical-semantic groups we have provided illustrating contexts, commentaries concerning the meaning, use, origin, their record in different kinds of dictionaries, sometimes giving information from Polish lexicography, Polish and German electronic corpora. We have analyzed the names of urban life items, documented in the Ukrainian advertisement at the end of the 19thcentury — the first half of the 20th century, that certify that the majority of such names are borrowings adapted on the Ukrainian language background: from German, Polish, French, Italian, Spanish, etc. Mainly Polish and German played an intermediary role in the assimilation of these words. We believe that lexical units and nominative word combinations recorded in the advertising texts of the 19th century — the first half of the 20thcentury, may serve as a basis for the register of lexicographic works of a specialized type, for instance, the Dictionary of Ukrainian Advertisement; the Dictionary of Western Ukrainian Variants of Literary Language of the 19th century — the first half of the 20th century, etc.

The article assesses the role of the Old Belarusian and the Old Ukrainian languages in the development of Czech-Eastern Slavonic linguistic relations in the 14th–18th centuries. There were both direct and indirect ways of Czech language influence on the Old Belarusian and the Old Ukrainian written languages. The 15th century saw favourable conditions for military-political alliance between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Bohemia. The emergence and development of these relations was accompanied by diplomatic activity: for instance, Grand Dukes Vitovt and Svidryhailo had correspondence in Latin and Old Czech with the Czech Hussites. Contacts in the military-political, socio-religious and cultural-educational spheres contributed to the development of Czech-East Slavic language ties. Translations of the Czech written texts into Old Belarusian and Old Ukrainian («The Life of Alexei the Man of God», «The Story of Apollo of Tyre», «Lucidarius», «The Song of Songs», «The Tale of Toadal», «The Tale of the Prophetess Sibylline», «The Trojan Story»), use of the Czech legal texts in writing Galicia-Volyn letters in the 14th and early 15th centuries. The use of Czech legal texts in Galicia-Volyn monuments (Norman Statute of 1438–1439, Statutes of 1529, 1566, 1588, Lithuanian Metric Acts) contributed to the direct penetration of Bohemianisms into the Old Belarusian and Old Ukrainian writing. Although there were channels through which Czech linguistic elements could be directly borrowed into Old-Belarusian and Old-Ukrainian, the main channel for their penetration was Polish. Through the Polish mediation Bohemian loanwords were borrowed from various lexical-semantic groups, mainly from religious, military, socio-political and economic, everyday life vocabulary. The similar conditions of borrowing of Bohemianisms in Old Belarusian and Old Ukrainian are obviously the main reason why Bohemianisms in both languages are close in number and chronology of written fixation. This similarity is especially noticeable against the background of Old Russian data, where bohemisms were recorded later and in smaller numbers

In post-COVID-19 conditions, it becomes possible to assess the impact that the coronavirus pandemic has had on the lexical stock of the Russian language. A large number of English-language loanwords have penetrated the Russian language, arousing the interest of linguists in the question of the influence of a new layer of vocabulary on the recipient language and becoming the subject of study by Russian and foreign linguists. For example, based on research on neologisms of the Covid era, dictionaries and reference books of the coronavirus era vocabulary are being produced in various languages, including Russian. Russian loanwords on Covid-19 in modern Russian online media (magazines, newspapers) are the subject of this study, and the aim is to identify the impact of the pandemic on enriching the vocabulary of the Russian language with English-language loanwords. Current works (not older than five years) by Russian and foreign scientists in the fields of lexicology, lexicography, onomastics, and sociolinguistics form the methodological basis of the research. The analysis of the impact of coronavirus on the process of assimilation of English-language loanwords in Russian is based on online media texts for the period February 2020–October 2021, which makes the study innovative and reflects the trends of modern linguistic science. The study revealed that the coronavirus pandemic has had an impact on the Russian language, generating neologisms from the Covid era, but they are reluctantly used by Russian-language media in their publications. Based on the results of the loan analysis obtained during the study, the Russian language is more characterized by the functioning of English-language loanwords that are not adapted for the recipient language, which belong to the first type according to E. Haugen's classification.

The article is dedicated to the study of the formation of phytonymous borrowings of Polish origin. The topicality of the chosen subject is determined by the need to deepen and systematize the data of etymological research of Ukrainian phytonymous borrowings of Polish origin. The aim of the study is to establish ways of archaic groups’ forming of the vocabulary of the modern Ukrainian language of the Western-Slavic origin. The following tasks depended of the aim. – to establish the ways of borrowing of Phytonymous Nomenclature in the Ukrainian language; – to identify the diachronic models of semantic changes in the Proto-Indo-European stems (roots), to which modern Ukrainian plant names are concerned. The botanic borrowings of Polish origin are analized. The research proves that semantic modifications, as in other groups of East-Slavonic botanical names, occur under certain dynamic motivational models (form → name by form, plant → plant, action → subject of action → name by subject, action → object of action → name of object, animal (bird) → name in form, form → habitat → name by place, place → name by place, plant → part of plant → name by part, etc.), and it is accompanied by a number of specific semantic modifications primarily inherent to individual lexical-semantic groups of botanical vocabulary. So, the necessity for the further study of botanical borrowings, is that the motivational foundations, called derivatives, lead to more profound semantic analysis of this lexical-semantic group of words, and also contribute to the further study of etymological character. The requirements of comparative-historical, etymological study of the Slavonic vocabulary arise the task of developing of a more precise lexical and terminological approach to interlingual synonymy phenomena, lexical and semantic parallels, models of nomination (motivational models), search for other permanent inter-system semantic relations. Etymological dictionaries and special lexicological studies of Slavonic languages create a sufficiently enough base for it and contain valuable personal observations that require systematization and theoretical substantiation.

The article is devoted to the peculiarities of the functioning of the lexeme fear [strakh] in the text of the Scriptures in the sphere of sacrum—profanum; the authors have described the method of research of emotional vocabulary in the linguistic aspect. The semantics of the mentioned word in a profane expression has been considered and based on the method of dictionary definition, etymological, contextual and conceptual analyses, and a complex approach. The authors have traced the understanding of fear in the sacral manifestation (fear of God), relying on the divine nature of this occurrence, which goes beyond the natural understanding of the studied phenomenon. The fear of God in the Bible should be considered as blahohovinnia [awe], which has three levels of manifestation: initial: it arises as gratitude to God for forgiven sins and leads a person to awe before the Lord and helps to salve his soul. A higher level is the feeling of blahohovinnia which resides in a person when they stand before God and is ready to obey Him in everything. The highest level of awe is the concept of absolute service to God when there is no fear but only love.The source language clearly distinguishes the concept of natural fear and supernatural fear, whose linguistic signs are separate lexemes, whereas in the Ukrainian language (as well as in Ukrainian translations of Scripture) the expression of these meanings occurs with the help of lexemes strakh [fear], bohobiynyi [God-fearing], pobozhnyi [pious], boyatysia [to fear], shanuvaty [to honour] that does not correlate with the primary source.