臺北縣「心希望農業」政策之政經分析

Because of the limited supply of land resource, it is unavoidable that farmland is being transferred to non-agricultural use in the course of economic development, but there is different basic nature between agricultural and nonagricultural land. It is well-known that recovery of land productivity may be difficult or impossible under improper conversion or application. In order to protect precious agricultural areas as well as the agricultural production environment, farmland resources should be balanced against the needs of all sectors in future, and land use should be comprehensively planned on the whole. Otherwise, the pollution problem will aggravate and agricultural productive environment will be destroyed.Accordingly, it is very important to use land resources reasonably, in order to meet the need for land of the whole nation's economic development, and to protect the precious farmland resources from irregularly scattering.Because of the scarcity of land resources, many countries strongly support the importance and protection of farmland though legislation. For example, in German ”Federal Territorial Order Law”, land suitable for agricultural production must not be considered for the use of other purposes except for very special need. Those farmland resources are well maintained and preserved in developed countries may be important experience worthy of learning for Taiwan.This paper intends to investigate rural land use planning and management in Taiwan from the aspects of land-use planning and control in Germany. Besides, the problems of agricultural land use in Taiwan will be expounded by current legal regulations so as to propose policy for sustainable development of land resources.

本論文從國家、地主與農民三個集體行動者的互動過程來解釋戰後初期臺灣的土地改革。行動者的抉擇受其擁有的權力以及既存的歷史社會條件之限制。行動者的利益考量和權力大小則與其所處的社會結構位置息息相關。其中，國家是最有權力的行動者，其決策考量對土地政策的發展影響甚大。研究發現，國府將土地改革當作策略性工具，用以解決戰後初期（1945-1953年）所遭遇的統治難題。依據國府施政所要解決的核心問題，這段土地改革史可以用1950年的過渡期為界，分為前後兩個時期。 前期從戰後到1949年底，問題重心在從臺灣汲取糧食以供應軍稰公糧。此時期的公地放租、墾荒暨公地放領和私地減租三個措施都或深或淺受糧政影響。長官公署原本將公地放租當作財政收入的一環，隨即將其改為糧食汲取工具。1948年魏道明省府推行墾荒暨公地放領政策來解決失業問題；但為兼顧糧政，省府限制放領面積並規定地價儘量以稻穀徵收，以免危及公地放租在糧食汲取上的功能。1949年陳誠省府實施私地減租是為了解決先前對地汲取的糧政措施所導致的租佃條件惡化及農村動盪問題，同時用以刺激糧食增產以因應遽增的軍糧負擔與本地糧食需求。減租配合肥料換穀雙重措施讓省府得以兼顧糧食增產與汲取。 後期從1950年底至1953年，首要課題在通過選舉的考驗，維持政權的穩固。1949年底國府敗退臺灣，蔣介石在美國軍方人士建議下安排其親信吳國楨擔任省主席。不料吳國楨卻違逆黨中央意旨，積極推行公地放領與地方自治選舉。1950年7月縣級選舉首度開辦後，本地地主勢力藉機而起，國府備感威脅。起初國府試圖走工農群眾路線，直接爭取廣大農民的支持與選票。黨中央採取拉攏農民、打擊地主的階級分而治之策略，制定更加偏袒佃農利益的三七五減租條例，對地主則不分大、小一律加以打壓。然而，經過時間與經驗的歷練，黨中央逐漸認清，在本地社會既存立基於人際網絡的選舉動員與投票模式下，外來政權不易直接掌控本地選民選票，難以在地方選舉中取勝。短期間內黨仍需倚靠本地勢力間接統治臺灣。1952年底黨中央調整結盟策略，並將之與土地改革措施結合，透過耕者有其田達成三個目標：整編舊菁英、扶植新勢力、中立化小地主。國府一次徵收地主菁英大量土地，有效削弱其經濟、社會力量，以利控制之，再收編順服者作為地方治理的協力者。另方面，國府不再主張限制佃農承領與佃耕的面積，給予大佃特惠利益，拉攏並扶植其成為地方基層的新勢力。1950年底起，國民黨的黨員徵收和組織發展策略也反映土地政策變革的策略用意作出相應的調整。後期土地政策的變革深受選舉開辦後政治局勢的衝擊，土地政策反過來也影響了後續臺灣地方政治的發展。

Despite the implementation of Bolivia's land reform in 1953, the agrarian structure continues to have an extreme concentration of land. Furthermore, in the last two decades regional agrarian structure have been aggravated by population pressures and a lack of new technological practices for most small scale farmers and peasants. Public and private institutions and urban residents observe hundreds of landless and near-landless families in the cities searching for jobs. Most end up becoming part of the growing unemployed labor force in the urban sector. The lack of industrialization policies to create job opportunities for the rural population and the explosive population growth in some rural area has contributed to the increasing levels of poverty among Bolivia's peasantry. Since a considerable proportion of the population increase must be absorbed by the agricultural sector, this has had a disadvantageous effect on those who are dependent on agriculture. Meanwhile, biased distribution of land has contributed to a reduction in the size of the land holding of most peasants in the subsistence or traditional sector. Many land holding are becoming smaller, sometimes leading to small scattered strips, while in other areas there is a gradual depletion of soil fertility due to exhaustive methods of production. It is believed that the demographic pressure is increasing so much that farming methods employed are causing environmental deterioration, such as soil exhaustation and erosion, with all the attendant effects on production. This land fragmentation has led to significant decreases in income of most family production units. At the same time, tenure conditions are becoming less favorable for small farmers and peasants, since landowners are placed in a stronger position relative to the peasants. Furthermore, agricultural land prices in the lowlands and new frontiers have been increasing, which makes land more attractive for capitalists to buy as investments. With the difficult access to land, the high population growth rates in some areas, and the extreme concentration of land, Bolivian peasants are unable to make a living on their own and are forced to find employment as farm or urban laborers. As a result, wages have stagnated or even fallen through the years, while unemployment has risen dramatically. While Bolivia has experiences a radical and highly publicized land reform, in the last four decades old inequalities and insecurities are reappearing. The family smallholding system with private ownership has led to intense subdivision and fragmentation of land in the highlands and valleys. Furthermore, yields of most cash crops are low in comparison to other Latin American countries. Research and extension have been practically nonexistent throughout the last two decades. Credit has been highly subsidized and concentrated among large scale enterprises. Substitution of illegal crops (coca leaves) has been increasing due to the lack of labor opportunities and agricultural incentives. Peasants are being pushed off their land in some prominent agricultural areas by large scale farmers, irrespective of the land markets and agrarian laws. Under these conditions, poverty among Bolivia's peasantry continues due to the lack of coordinated development strategies in the agricultural sector. Two of the leading causes of this rural poverty is the lack of access to sufficient land for the peasantry and land distribution patterns that have arisen in the last two decades. Therefore, studies of land concentration, which has a direct relationship with the distribution of wealth in the rural economy, must be a priority in order to develop the sector.

The loss of agricultural land in California to urban development and the subsequent damage to air quality and crops, as well as the cost of food and government services, calls for a new look at local zoning practices to preserve the remaining farm and range land. Recent and proposed actions of the California Legislature are examined in the context of improving local regulations and local resistance to state programs. The present state structure for land-use control is shown to be inadequate, but the author concludes that an effective program can be developed if a statewide program based on the American Law Institute Model Land Development Code is adopted. The Code specifies planning through a state agricultural land agency to which local governments must be bound, but which must not duplicate or supplant local zoning. A statewide program would be expected to counteract the shortsighted local policies. 208 references. (DCK)

The study examined the food security status and the socio-economic effects of climate change on rural farming households in Delta State, Nigeria. The main objective of the study was to determine the food security status of the rural farming households in the state while the specific objective was to determine the socio-economic effects of climate change on rural farming households in the state. Multistage sampling procedure was used in the random selection of local government, communities and rural households for the research study. The data for the study were obtained with the aids of structured questionnaire survey randomly administered to rural farming households in the state. Food security index was used to determine the level of food insecurity (food security status) among the rural households in communities that have been affected by flood and or other climate hazardswhile descriptive statistics was used to summarize the socio-economic effects and their food security status of the rural farming households in the state. Most respondents (65.10%) were married with low annual income of N54,702 ($353) which is less than the poverty line of less than $1 (one dollar) a day. Most rural farming households witnessed loss of investment on farm lands, lives and income respectively in the state. The study also reveals that rural farming households suffered ill health, such as malaria, water borne diseases and skin infections that were on the increase in the state. The study also revealed that majority of respondents was moderately food insecure. The study also recommends that Government planning agencies and policy makers should put into consideration these food insecurity situations in their planning and policy implementation to prevent future chronic food insecurity situation in the state.

This report summarizes the 2019 results of the North Dakota Land Valuation Model. The model is used annually to estimate average land values by county, based on the value of production from cropland and non-cropland. The county land values developed from this procedure form the basis for the 2019 valuation of agricultural land for real estate tax assessment. The average value for all agricultural land in a county from this analysis is multiplied by the total acres of agricultural land on the county abstract to determine each county’s total agricultural land value for taxation purposes. The State Board of Equalization compares this value with the total value assessed to agricultural property in each county. The average value per acre of all agricultural land in North Dakota increased by 2.72 percent from 2018 to 2019 based on the value of production. The formula cost of production index value used in the 2019 analysis was 209.56. The formula capitalization rate was 4.51 percent. The capitalization rate had a larger effect on higher valuations compared to recent years. Cropland value increased, on average, 2.64 percent. Across individual counties, the cropland valuation ranged from a decrease of 4.29 percent to an increase of 6.99 percent. County values had small increases and decreases depending on crop mix and cropland to non-cropland percentages. Non-cropland values increased 5.52 percent. Generally, valuations for counties with a higher percentage of livestock increased partly due to increased calf prices for the current year replacing the lower oldest year in the data set. Changes in market value are included for comparison. Market value data are from the annual County Rents and Prices survey conducted by the North Dakota Department of Trust Lands.

Tax incidence measures the extent to which land owners can increase rental rates in order to shift the agricultural property tax burden to the renters of the agricultural land. In the U.S., Ohio s Current Agricultural Use Value Program (CAUV) determines the taxable value of agricultural land based on formulas incorporating agricultural prices, yields, and capitalization rate but is determined exogenously from market expectations of land value. We estimate the property tax incidence on rental rates of agricultural land. Results indicate that cash rental rates in Ohio from 2008 through 2017 increased between $0.38 to $0.63 for each additional dollar of property tax levied on agricultural land which is similar to the related literature on government payment incidence. Acknowledgement :

We examine the effects of natural disaster exposure on agricultural households who simultaneously make rent-in and rent-out decisions in the land rental market. Our econometric approach accounts for the effects of disaster exposure both on the adjustments in the quantity of operated land (i.e. extensive margin) and agricultural yield conditional on the land quantity adjustments (i.e. intensive margin), based on selectivity-corrected samples of rental market participants. Employing a household survey dataset from Bangladesh, we find that farmers were able to ameliorate their losses from exposure to disasters by optimizing their operational farm size through participation in the land rental market. These results are robust to alternative specifications. This suggests that the land rental market may be an effective instrument reducing disaster risk, and post-disaster policies should take into account this role more systematically.

Agricultural land purchases by non-local buyers for hunting purposes (106 sales) were compared to nearby (comparable) land purchases of local agricultural producers (318 sales) in the Southwest and Prairie Pothole Regions (PPR) of North Dakota from 2000 to 2004. In the PPR (dominated by waterfowl hunting), it was demonstrated that non-locals do not pay a premium for agricultural land that they purchase for hunting purposes. In the Southwest Region (dominated by pheasant hunting), it was found that nonlocals pay between 23 and 24 percent more for agricultural land based on mean differences, but that if median differences are evaluated, these premiums range from 19 (nearby sale comparisons) to -4 percent (county-wide comparisons). These discrepancies in mean and median price premiums are shown to result from the existence of several statistical outlier sales. These results imply that recent surges in agricultural land prices across the entire state of North Dakota cannot be attributed solely to non-local hunting purchases. It was also noted that most non-local purchasers of hunting land do restrict public hunting access and that they also usually lease their land to local producers

This study examines the effects of land tenure systems on resource-use productivity and efficiency in the Upper East region of Ghana with data drawn from the Ghana Agricultural Production Survey. A stochastic frontier model is employed to analyse resource-use productivity and efficiency of the rice farms. The study establishes that rice farms under the various land tenure systems are technically inefficient. Technical efficiency for the pooled sample was 61.80%. The estimated technical efficiencies for the farms under owned, rented and sharecropping were 68.19%, 61.61% and 45.17% respectively. The rice production frontier is influenced by farm size, fertiliser, seed and labour. Furthermore, owned land and fixed rent reduce the inefficiency of rice production. Other factors, such as dibbling and credit access, increase inefficiency, while marital status, extension contact and broadcasting decrease inefficiency in rice production. The study suggests that the formulation of appropriate land policies should gear towards ensuring secure rights to farmlands.

Agricultural intensification is related to changes in agricultural practices, land use management and alterations to landscape features. The use of a model to represent real-based scenarios of agricultural practices, land use management and landscape features alterations providing quantitative effects on flow and sediments was not found in previous studies. Therefore, this contribution examines flow and sediment generation under agricultural change scenarios by applying a physically-based, spatially-distributed model, SHETRAN, in two agricultural catchments in southwest England. Model calibration was conducted on the Blackwater catchment (18 km2) with evaluation on the Kit Brook catchment (22 km2) using 15-minute flow and suspended sediment data from September 2010 to October 2014. Calibration simulations were performed at a 50 x 50 m grid resolution using a 2010 land cover map where winter barley was the dominant arable crop. Parameter sensitivity was evaluated by one-at-a-time and multi-criteria methods, in addition to model sensitivity to changes in DEM resolution. Simulated catchment scenarios included: a) historic land cover maps; b) land cover end-member; c) crop types; d) soil compaction effects; e) arable fields varying in slope range; f) grass and woodland riparian buffers; and g) randomized spatial arrangement of cropped fields. In three subcatchments, alterations of landscape features included: a) roads, b) sunken lanes, c) urban areas and d-f) the removal of them (substituted by grass). Model calibration presented a Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient of 0.8 and 0.6 in model evaluation. The parameters to which the model is most sensitive were saturated hydraulic conductivity, Stickler coefficient, and the erodibility coefficients. Sensitivity analysis on grid resolution showed increases in flow and sediment flux peaks and decreases in event flow/sediment duration with decreasing grid size. Comparison of past land covers indicate small flow volume (Qv) variations. However, sediment yield (Sy) increased linearly with cropland area. The woodland cover end-member presented Qv (16%) and Sy (35%) reductions compared with the grass cover end-member. The use of grass as a cover crop after harvesting showed sediment reduction by up to 62% for maize, 49% for spring cereals and 28% for winter cereals. Removing a soil compaction effect from arable land produced minor changes in Qv and Sy. Arable fields in low slope areas reduced Sy by 30%; whereas crops located on slope >7° increased exports by 22% (Blackwater). Riparian buffer showed Sy reduction with a higher efficiency in woodland (14% Blackwater, 22% Kit Brook) than grass buffer (11% Blackwater, 19% Kit Brook). Altering cropped field spatial arrangements varied Sy 7-13%. Subcatchment scenarios showed contrasting behaviour, especially in Sy, which was attributed to differences in topography and land cover. Road representation (on-level and sunken) contributed to faster flow arrival and longer event duration. Sunken lanes had a slightly higher impact on 4-year flow compared with roads, but were highly variable in Sy. Urban areas showed flow spatial distribution changes that provoked a 3% Qv increase; whereas Sy were reduced 60% as paved areas are less prone to soil detachment compared with grass. The results show higher impact in Sy than Qv at catchment and sub-catchments scale, suggesting SHETRAN use as a tool for soil erosion prevention and land use management.

Bangladesh a developing country in South Asia, has tremendous pressure on land with population density of over 800 persons per sq. km. It has a total area of 14.4 million hectare of which 12.3 million hectare is covered by land. Agriculture is still the main source of economy of the country contributing about 36% of the GDP. However, agricultural land has been squeezed coming around 0.06 hectare per person due to intense pressure of population. Agricultural production has also been static or declined over the recent years. Large-scale degradation of land resources is a worldwide phenomenon. Bangladesh is not an exception to it. The issue of land degradation is of serious concern for Bangladesh, as it is a threat to crop production and food security. Lands in Bangladesh are subjected to degradation by both natural hazards and human activities. Growing population pressure on land, increased human interference, inadequate or faulty crop management practices, intensified crop production and poor organic matter management have led to severe land degradation in the country. Symptoms of land degradation such as depletion of organic matter, nutrient deficiency, acidification, salinization, soil compaction, plough pan formation, water logging and accelerated erosion are becoming more apparent. Water erosion is most widespread in Bangladesh and affects roughly 25% of agricultural land. Accelerated soil erosion is encountered in the hilly areas of the country. Shifting cultivation in hilly areas in the southeast of the country alone accounts for soil loss of 10-120 t/ha/yr. Besides soil loss, significant quantities of plant nutrients are also being depleted from the top soil and causing tremendous degradation of land quality. Thus combating land degradation is vital through adoption of long-term land management strategy for the country.

Introduction: Economic effects of membership in the WTO in recent years, has been one of the most important issues for Iranian economy. If Iran joins the WTO, in this process, tariff reduction in agricultural sector will be one of the policies which has to be employed. Therefore, investigating economic effects of tariff reduction or even its elimination in this sector will be necessary in running effective policies to minimize the probabilistic losses of accession. Tariffs on agricultural products in Iran are determined merely on the basis of annual country economy, and have no long term strategy. Government is just obliged to impose effective tariffs on agricultural products imports, in order to protect local productions. On the other hand, according to the census of population and housing, the share of agricultural sector in employment has reduced during the past decade. Moreover, Iran central bank information indicated the reduction in the share of agricultural sector in GDP for the past decade. Declining the share of agriculture in production and employment, considering the high number of university graduates in the field of agriculture along with rising unemployment rate of this group, motivated this study to investigate the effect of tariff reduction in this sector on macroeconomic variables. Materials and Methods: This study analyzed the welfare effects of import tariffs reduction in agricultural sector from Iran most important commercial partners and vice versa, using the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP), based on computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. Moreover, the effects of tariffs reduction, is investigated on output, price level and transfer of production factors between different economic sectors. In order to simulate the above model, we used GTAP version 8 which covers 57 commodities and 113 regions with economic information of these regions. This model uses Social Accounting Matrix of countries as data information. Our model includes 3 regions: Iran, ECO and CIS countries as commercial partners of Iran, and the rest of the world, 5 production factors: land, skilled labor, unskilled labor, capital, and natural resources, and finally, 3 production sectors: agriculture, industry, and services. Two scenarios are simulated in this study: first, 50 percent imports value tariff reduction, and zero import tax target rate on intermediate goods for agriculture production in Iran is been considering. For the second scenario, we set a zero target rate for all cases mentioned above. It should be noted that according to Social Accounting Matrix gathered for Iran currently, the average tariff rate on imports of agricultural products from selected commercial partners is 27.67 percent and 7.82 percent from Iran to these countries. Results and Discussion: Results showed that 50 percent reduction in tariffs, increases social welfare, while full elimination of agricultural tariffs leads to a loss in welfare. The welfare analysis illustrated that the efficiency of resource allocation in agriculture sector increased in the first scenario, while in the second scenario, the share of efficient allocation of resources in welfare was negative. Despite equal reduction in tariff rate on the value of imports from these countries to Iran and vice versa, trade balance of Iran has been worse, while it was beneficial for trade balance of her commercial partners. However, agricultural sector had positive share in trade balance of Iran, but the negative effect of industrial sector on trade balance, totally, reduced trade balance of Iran in large quantities. The first scenario increased agricultural production, but increased production was lower in the second scenario..However, the industrial sector production was slightly reduced. On the other hand, more production in agriculture lead more production factors demand, such as skilled and unskilled labors, and capital using in this sector. Moreover, price of production factors has been increased due to increasing demand for these factors. Conclusion: According to our results, 50 percent tariff reduction on agricultural productions imports policy among Iran and her commercial partners will be beneficial for both sides in terms of welfare and agricultural production. However, with this information in hand, full elimination of these tariffs had no positive results. Therefore, policy makers, on the way to join WTO, should impose the policy of 50 percent reduction in tariffs in short time, subject to bilateral agreement. According to the prospect of the accession toward full elimination of agricultural tariffs, to minimize the welfare losses due to it, this is essential to apply other protective strategies such as subsidies and production facilities to intermediate goods producers for agricultural sector.

Interest towards farmland market has been increasing in recent years. In developing countries there is a rising concern about land being purchased by foreign investors, while in the developed world the debate is focused on whether agricultural factors are still the main determinants of land values or not. This work assesses the determinants of land values in Italy using TSCS data techniques during the time span 1992-2013. In Italy farmland values have historically been influenced more by natural characteristics of the land than agricultural prices. However, lately non-agricultural factors have been increasing their importance. We find that the main determinants of Italian farmland prices are population density, GDP per capita, land productivity, agricultural prices and farm subsidies. In the case of vineyards, changing rainfall patterns due to climate change have also a significant impact. Environmental regulations for livestock farms positively affects arable land values.

Indonesian Government needs to implement an appropriate rice policy to achieve the food security and poverty alleviation. Therefore, this study aims to investigate how Indonesian government can achieve the policy targets such as global competitiveness of rice sector and food security under more liberalized trade regime. This dissertation comprises six main chapters. Chapter I presents the introduction of the study. The author describes the background of the study, the research topics, the originality, and the organization of the dissertation. Chapter II provides the overview of the general situation of the rice sector in Indonesia. This chapter describes the rice production both at the national level andat the provincial level. Moreover, this chapter also illustrates the importance of the rice sector in Indonesian agriculture. Chapter III examines the competitiveness and cost efficiency of rice farming in Indonesia. This chapter attempts to test the cost efficiency of rice farming in the main rice producing areas, and confirms the competitiveness of each area. Chapter IV focuses on the economies of scale in Indonesian rice production. This chapter tests the existence of scale economies via three different methodologies: the cost elasticity of production, the cost function derived from the production function of rice, and the profit function derived from the maximization problem of the rice farmer. Chapter V investigates the constraint of farm size enlargement in the rice sector of Central Java. This chapter captures the result of a field survey in Central Java, which examines the surplus labor in the rural labor market, characteristics of land tenure, fragmentation of land, agricultural land law that discourages land transaction, and expectation for the conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural land. Finally, Chapter VI is the conclusion. This chapter provides the major findings and conclusions of the study. Then, the author derives the policy recommendations to help the Indonesian Government improve the Indonesian rice sector. The results of investigation in this study imply that if Indonesian Government liberalizes the rice policy, rice farmers in the major rice growing areas, such as Central Java and East Java will have the largest negative effects because they do not have global competitiveness due to small farm sizes. This study also found some evidences about the existence of scale economies in the study area and the benefit of enlarging the farm size. It may implement an alternative mix policy to promote farm-size enlargement such as facilitating the development of off-farm jobs in rural area, controlling land conversion, and considering the role of hamlets and villages for efficient and sustainable agricultural land use.[Key words: Rice Farming, Competitiveness, Cost Efficiency, Economies of Scale, Farm Size Enlargement]