2010 Annual Progress Report: DOE Hydrogen Program

Understanding the complicated relationship between energy, climate and security is vital both to the study of international relations and to ensure the continued survival of a world increasingly threatened by environmental change. Climate change is largely caused by burning fossil fuels for energy, but while discussions on the climate consider the role of energy, energy security debates largely overlook climate concerns. This article traces the separation between energy and climate through an analysis of US energy security discourse and policy. It shows that energy security is continually constructed as national security, which enables very particular policy choices and prioritises it above climate concerns. Thus, in many cases, policies undertaken in the name of energy security contribute directly to climate insecurity. The article argues that the failure to consider securing the climate as inherently linked to energy security is not just problematic, but, given global warming, potentially harmful. Consequently, any approach to dealing with climate change has to begin by rethinking energy security and security more broadly, as national (energy) security politics no longer provides security in any meaningful sense.

The mission of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Nuclear Energy is to advance nuclear power in order to meet the nation's energy, environmental, and energy security needs. Advanced high temperature reactor systems such as sodium fast reactors and high and very high temperature gas-cooled reactors are being considered for the next generation of nuclear reactor plant designs. The coolants for these high temperature reactor systems include liquid sodium and helium gas. Supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO₂), a fluid at a temperature and pressure above the supercritical point of CO₂, is currently being investigated by DOE as a working fluid for a nuclear or fossil-heated recompression closed Brayton cycle energy conversion system that operates at 550°C (1022°F) at 200 bar (2900 psi). Higher operating temperatures are envisioned in future developments. All of these design concepts require a highly effective heat exchanger that transfers heat from the nuclear or chemical reactor to the chemical process fluid or the to the power cycle. In the nuclear designs described above, heat is transferred from the primary to the secondary loop via an intermediate heat exchanger (IHX) and then from the intermediate loop to either a working process or a power cycle via a secondary heat exchanger (SHX). The IHX is a component in the primary coolant loop which will be classified as "safety related." The intermediate loop will likely be classified as "not safety related but important to safety." These safety classifications have a direct bearing on heat exchanger design approaches for the IHX and SHX. The very high temperatures being considered for the VHTR will require the use of very high temperature alloys for the IHX and SHX. Material cost considerations alone will dictate that the IHX and SHX be highly effective; that is, provide high heat transfer area in a small volume. This feature must be accompanied by low pressure drop and mechanical reliability and robustness. Classic shell and tube designs will be large and costly, and may only be appropriate in steam generator service in the SHX where boiling inside the tubes occurs. For other energy conversion systems, all of these features can be met in a compact heat exchanger design. This report will examine some of the ASME Code issues that will need to be addressed to allow use of a Code-qualified compact heat exchanger in IHX or SHX nuclear service. Most effort will focus on the IHX, since the safety-related (Class A) design rules are more extensive than those for important-to-safety (Class B) or commercial rules that are relevant to the SHX.

The transition to renewable energy requires competent human resources (HR) to achieve national energy security. This study examines Indonesia's HR readiness for the energy transition through an integrated perspective on energy security and the defense science philosophy. This systematic literature review analyzed 15 high-quality sources (from 30 initially identified, 2020-2025) to examine human resources readiness for Indonesia's energy transition. Using a PRISMA-aligned methodology, 13 key studies (11 journal articles and two institutional reports) were selected for detailed analysis, with two additional sources supporting the development of the thematic framework. The analysis integrates perspectives on energy security, defense science, and defense anthropology to identify HR readiness challenges, with particular emphasis on regional disparities. Despite Indonesia's renewable energy target of 17%-19% for 2025 (revised from an initial target of 23%), current realization remains at only 13.1% (2024), revealing critical competency gaps in the human resources sector. Key findings include: Indonesia ranks sixth globally for energy-sector emissions (691.97 million tons of CO2 in 2022); significant geographic disparities exist, with Java having 204 educational institutions for energy training, compared to only 3 in remote provinces. Required competencies encompass multidisciplinary technical skills, adaptability to technology, and security-aware soft skills. Policy recommendations include energy security-based training programs, competency certification standards, the establishment of an HR energy security council, and the integration of defense anthropology principles into HR development. This research provides a strategic understanding of HR readiness requirements essential for supporting Indonesia's equitable energy transition toward sustainable national energy security.

Japan is implementing a long-term strategic energy policy that could transform the country into a "Hydrogen Society." The new policy started this year and is to be carried out over the next 30 years and beyond. The Hydrogen Society Policy consists of three phases of activities and goals, each phase covering about 10 years and overwrapping with the subsequent phases. During Phase 1, Japan will engage in large-scale commercialization of stationary fuel cells, fuel cell vehicles, and hydrogen refueling stations. The policy is a daring undertaking that no other country has ever attempted; indeed, it is Japan's desperate measure for desperate times. The driving factor for the country to embark on such a dramatic plan was the grave threat to the nation's economy, environment, and energy security caused by the catastrophic earthquake and tsunami on March 11, 2011. For the past 40 years, Japan depended on thermal power and nuclear energy. Since the 3.11, all nuclear power generation has been shut down—except for a two facilities that recently were restarted—forcing Japan to depend on thermal power almost entirely. As a result, the country's imports of foreign fuels soared, rapidly draining national wealth, increasing CO2 emissions, and lowering the country's energy self-sufficiency. This paper will examine the factors that drove Japan to implement the Hydrogen Society Policy, the concept of Japan's future hydrogen society, Phase 1 activities and their goals, the first-year government budget for Phase 1, and Japan's near term perspective of the economic returns from the Hydrogen Society Policy.

The U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) national network of Clean Cities Coalitions advance the nation's economic, environmental, and energy security by supporting local actions to promote the use of domestic fuels within transportation. The nearly 100 Clean Cities coalitions, whose territory covers 80% of the U.S. population, bring together stakeholders in the public and private sectors to use alternative and renewable fuels, idle-reduction (IR) measures, fuel economy improvements, and new transportation technologies as they emerge. To ensure success, coalitions leverage a robust set of expert resources and tools provided by national laboratories and DOE. Each year, Clean Cities coordinators submit annual reports of their activities and accomplishments for the previous calendar year. Data and information are submitted via an online tool that is maintained as part of the Alternative Fuels Data Center (AFDC) at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Coordinators submit a range of data that characterize the membership, funding, projects, and activities of their coalitions. They also submit data about sales of alternative fuels; use of alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs), plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs), and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs); IR initiatives; fuel economy improvement activities; and programs to reduce vehicle miles traveled (VMT). NREL analyzes the submitted data to determine how broadly energy use in the U.S. has shifted due to coalition activities, which are summarized in this report.

Uranium and Thorium are natural elements known for their radioactive properties that can be used as a source of nuclear power. Both Uranium and Thorium are new energy sources, and are classified as alternative nuclear fuels, they are known as green nuclear. Uranium is not a rare metal, it is estimated that there are 5.7 million tons of uranium reserves in the world in 2015 in the Red Book of The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development-Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD-NEA). As for Thorium, which is a heavy metal content in the earth's crust, it has reserves of 6.3 million tons in the world. Compared to Uranium, Thorium has a more even distribution and one of them is found in Indonesia. The National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN) stated that Indonesia has 79,830 tons of uranium reserves and 136,966 tons of Thorium, which are scattered in the Bangka Belitung Islands, Kalimantan Island and Sulawesi Island. The purpose of this paper is to examine the potential of Uranium and Thorium in Indonesia, including the amount of reserves, their distribution and future prospects in order to support the nation's energy security, because in Indonesia, nuclear is used for peaceful purposes, namely as a power plant.

As one of the premier research laboratories operated by the Department of Energy, Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) is pursuing an energy research agenda that focuses on renewable energy systems and will help to secure the nation's energy security. A key element of the BNL research is the advancement of grid-connected utility-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) plants, particularly in the northeastern part of the country where BNL is located. While a great deal of information has been generated regarding solar PV systems located in mostly sunny, hot, arid climates of the southwest US, very little data is available to characterize the performance of these systems in the cool, humid, frequently overcast climates experienced in the northeastern portion of the country. Recognizing that there is both a need and a market for solar PV generation in the northeast, BNL is pursuing research that will advance the deployment of this important renewable energy resource. BNL's research will leverage access to unique time-resolved data sets from the 37MWp solar array recently developed on its campus. In addition, BNL is developing a separate 1MWp solar research array on its campus that will allow field testing of new PV system technologies, including solar modules and balance of plant equipment, such as inverters, energy storage devices, and control platforms. These research capabilities will form the cornerstone of the new Northeast Solar Energy Research Center (NSERC) being developed at BNL. In this paper, an overview of BNL's energy research agenda is given, along with a description of the 37MWp solar array and the NSERC.

Indonesia has the potential of abundant natural resources that made the country a global energy producer before, but because of the dwindling energy reserves owned makes the position reversed and caused Indonesia’s policy to have energy supply from other countries, besides the high utilization of fossil energy in Indonesia has much impact on environmental damage such as air and water pollution and does not support economic development patterns. Sustainable. For this reason, the Indonesian government needs to improve its policy regulations by focusing on the development and management of new renewable energy as a form of a national resilience strategy and environmental impact reduction. This new renewable energy will be analyzed from 4 dimensions of political considerations in constructivist theory, namely idiographic, purposive, ethics, and instrument, to see if it will be appropriate for Indonesia’s national energy security strategic plan. This research uses qualitative methods that explain the two variables involved in this new renewable energy and energy security and look for reasons for the need to include the concept of renewable energy in the national energy security policy strategy, with qualitative data collection techniques and library literature sources and interview results of related quotations. The results of the four-dimensional analysis will explain that the concept of renewable energy ideas is a social construction that can be a policy recommendation in the field of energy for the government to maintain the availability of energy supply in the strategic issue of national energy security

Energy transportation and distribution are crucial components in the national energy system, serving as the main link between energy sources and consumers. The efficiency of both systems is crucial to maintain the stability of energy supply and minimize energy loss during the distribution process. This study aims to explore the importance of energy transportation and distribution in the context of national energy security and the geographical and energy infrastructure challenges in Indonesia. Using a literature study method, this study collects and analyzes literature from various academic sources and relevant reports. The results show that an efficient energy transportation and distribution system plays a major role in reducing the energy gap between regions, expanding energy access to remote areas, and supporting sustainable economic development. In addition, Indonesia's geographical challenges as an archipelagic country, such as the distance between islands and population inequality, widen the energy infrastructure gap between the western and eastern regions. Investment in energy infrastructure development, especially in disadvantaged areas, and the integration of renewable energy are important steps in strengthening national energy security. This study concludes that in order to achieve better and more equitable energy security, inclusive and sustainable energy infrastructure development policies and strategies are needed.

The article is devoted to researching the problems of the national economy energy security and evaluating the effectiveness of the mechanisms of its provision in modern conditions. The proposed scientific-methodical approach to evaluating the effectiveness of energy security mechanisms provides for the allocation of three main components: resource, economic, and energy efficiency. The presented algorithm for integrated assessment of the energy security mechanisms' effectiveness includes four stages. The dynamics of integral indicators of each component of the provisioning mechanism were studied. It was established that the period under study (2009–2020) is characterized by the instability of the energy security sphere, which is associated with geopolitical challenges and the transformation of Ukraine’s energy system to EU requirements. It was substantiated that conducting a SWOT analysis of energy security, taking into account the obtained indicators of the mechanisms of its provision effectiveness, makes it possible to determine modern trends, features, and future opportunities of Ukraine in the energy sector. At the same time, it is important to take into account the peculiarities of the internal and external environment of the national economy, its strengths and weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. The obtained results make it possible to diagnose the mechanisms of ensuring energy security, determine their impact on the implementation of the declared energy security strategy, and make appropriate adjustments to the strategic goals and objectives of the prospective energy development of Ukraine’s national economy. It was substantiated in the article that the complexity of the problem of assessing the effectiveness of energy security mechanisms is determined by the dynamics of changes in the functioning of both national economic systems and the global economy. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation mechanisms of the Energy Security Strategy of Ukraine (2021), it was proposed to take into account the economic, resource, energy, environmental, and European integration components. Thus, the implementation of the strategic goals of ensuring the country’s energy security is determined by the effectiveness of organizational-legal and organizational-economic mechanisms, tools, methods, and means.

<p>Large-scale storage of energy is an effective and efficient way to increase energy security. Europe is highly dependent on gas imports, but gas storage capacity has not been expanded accordingly. An increased deployment of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar will require additional energy storage to balance intermittencies, for example in the form of subsurface hydrogen storage. Hence the development of more geological storage sites is inevitable, and detailed asset planning needs to commence today.</p> <p>Cushion gas is an expensive but necessary investment in gas storage, especially in subsurface hydrogen storage as hydrogen will remain a commodity in high demand. A reduction of the cushion gas in hydrogen storage – either replacing H<sub>2</sub> cushion gas with alternative gases or reducing the cushion gas to working gas ratio – will introduce uncertainties in terms of hydrogen purity and injection and reproduction rates, and the cost-reducing effect might backfire.</p> <p>However, a certain part of the cushion gas can also be regarded as an asset, as it can be reproduced efficiently by standard production techniques. This “recoverable cushion gas” could act as a national gas reserve for times of severe energy shortages. The state could dictate to access this one-time energy backup during times of energy emergency, and therefore this particular share of the cushion gas should be paid for by the government, combining economic gas storage with national emergency gas reserves for an increase in national energy security. For this study, a North Sea gas store was used to illustrate and quantify the idea.</p> <p>As part of the cushion gas would be an investment into energy security by the government, the use of “recoverable cushion gas” could reduce implementation costs for hydrogen storage sites and set the incentive to massively expand low-carbon energy storage.  </p>

Renewable energy serves as an effective alternative to traditional fossil fuels, reducing reliance on energy imports from specific countries, thereby alleviating geopolitical risks and ensuring national energy security. The development and utilization of renewable energy have profound implications for the global energy consumption structure and geopolitical landscape. This paper utilizes time-series and panel data from 1990 to 2020 to examine the causal relationship between renewable energy consumption and geopolitical risks. Focusing primarily on the United States and the United Kingdom, a multivariate regression model was developed for empirical analysis, with a comparative analysis conducted against other Group of Seven (G7) member countries. Subsequent robustness checks were performed to further validate the model's robustness. Additionally, this study explores the role of military strength as a moderating variable in the relationship between renewable energy and geopolitics. Lastly, a vector autoregression model was constructed to analyze the dynamic relationships between renewable energy and related variables. The findings reveal that (1) consumption of clean renewable energies, such as solar, wind, and tidal energy, significantly reduces geopolitical risks in the United States and the United Kingdom, with differing empirical results for France, Canada, and Japan, interpreted according to their developmental contexts and (2) increased defense expenditure in the US and the UK significantly enhances the positive impact of renewable energy consumption on mitigating geopolitical risks. Utilizing renewable energy not only diversifies national energy options but also reduces reliance on fossil fuels and fosters international cooperation, thereby easing geopolitical tensions. This research enriches the literature on the relationship between renewable energy consumption and national energy security in key global nations and offers theoretical insights for the formulation and implementation of national energy development strategies in the new world development paradigm.

Security implications of climate change have been highlighted by various political and advisory bodies, as well as non-governmental organizations (NGOs), in recent years. It is unclear, however, whether such a ‘securitization’ of climate change can also be found beyond institutionalized politics in the public realm, and beyond Western countries. This article addresses these questions by investigating mass media coverage in nine countries over a period of 15 years. Based on an analysis of more than 101,000 newspaper articles, it shows an increasing discussion of climate change in security terms, with diverging trends in the analysed countries. While Western, industrialized countries such as the USA, the UK or Australia display an increasing securitization of climate change, the amount of securitizing language has decreased in India and South Africa. Moreover, different countries refer to different security dimensions – with regard both to the subjects whose security is of concern (national security, human security) and to the type of resources that are discussed in security terms (energy security, water security, food security). While Western countries strongly focus on national security and energy security, emerging economies place greater emphasis on food and, less pronounced, on water security.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) (2020) states that “Global energy-related CO2 emissions flattened in 2019 at around 33 gigatons, following 2 years of increases. This resulted mainly from a sharp decline in CO2 emissions from the power sector in advanced economies, thanks to the expanding role of renewable sources (mainly wind and solar photovoltaics), fuel switching from coal to natural gas and higher nuclear power output.” The decarbonization mechanism agreed to at 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP 21) held in Paris urges all members to commit to Intended Nationally Determined Contributions, but it is natural for developing economies to be reluctant to make ambitious commitments because they depend more on coal and oil as they are cheaper energy sources than renewables or gas for economic growth. Arimura and Sugino (2021) describe how Asian economies have tried to reduce their CO2 emissions. Arimura and Sugino (2021) do correctly pick up air pollution issues among the many environmental issues as the primary environmental concern for Asian countries. Air quality is indeed very important for the welfare of the domestic population, but global warming seems more important for someone else in the world. Here, I add an “energy security” aspect to the discussion. Reducing a country's import dependency on oil and gas by using more indigenous renewables and enforcing energy efficiency will increase its national energy security. Security is directly linked to the welfare of the population. The International Energy Agency (IEA) was established in 1974 at the time of the first oil crisis to secure the oil supply by the strategic stockpiling of petroleum. But IEA (2019, p. 255) states that “Electricity is at the heart of modern economies and it is providing a rising share of energy services.” The steady and affordable supply of clean electricity with less air pollution is the key energy security and environment policy for the future. Security cannot be achieved by one country alone; a European style of collective undertaking is essential in Asia, in areas such as power grid connectivity or gas pipeline connections for scaling up the use of renewables as well as natural gas. Arimura and Sugino (2021) also touch upon market policy instruments for CO2 reductions. They explain very well where Asian countries stand in relation to carbon pricing by emissions trading schemes (ETS) or carbon tax measures. Carbon pricing is theoretically the best way to reduce emissions. It was first introduced by the EU and followed by some Asian countries like Chinese provinces. Association of Southeast Asian Nations countries as a group may consider ETS. Arimura and Sugino (2021) discuss a variety of cases in different countries, but unfortunately these countries introduced carbon prices or taxes that are far too low or reduction targets that are not ambitious enough to make an effective carbon rate. Arimura and Sugino (2021) say that it should be more than US$30 or 30 Euros. IEA (2019, p. 758) assumes that effective rate of carbon for the Sustainable Development Scenario (2° containment) should be as high as US$100 in advanced countries and about US$20 in developing countries in 2030. With such low rates, it would be very difficult to evaluate quantitatively the impact of carbon pricing on fuel switching from coal to gas, efficiency improvement or the deployment of renewables. ETS is theoretically the best way to achieve a certain level of emissions reduction though it is highly political to make a commitment and not much has been achieved during decades of futile discussion. International harmonization of an ETS or carbon tax seems to me to be a “scientific fiction.” Rather than discussing the theoretical advantages of carbon pricing forever, applying internal carbon pricing mechanisms for corporate investment decisions may be more realistic and constructive. It is not a top-down approach, but rather a bottom-up approach. Many European corporations already have internal carbon pricing, while this is much less the case in either Japan or Asia. In 2018, the Japanese government took very seriously the recommendations of the Task Force for Climate Financial Disclosure (TCFD). The Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry organized a working group for the TCFD and developed guidelines for Japanese corporations. More than 200 Japanese corporations have signed up with TCFD so far and will disclose their climate risks in due course. They are requested to make internal carbon price assumptions to evaluate their risks when the 2° scenario comes true. Financial investors will divest from corporations with high risks of depending on coal. There are more than 229 global corporations (including 30 Japanese corporations) claiming themselves to be RE100 (Renewable Energy 100%). These corporations pledge to use only carbon free energy sources to produce their products by 2030. Some companies like Apple demand their supply chain companies to do the same regardless of their home country. Those corporations who wish to stay in Apple's supply chain will not buy electricity generated by using coal. This movement together with the financial sector's selection of TCFD standards will force the electricity supply structure to change. As Arimura and Sugino (2021) conclude, fuel switching from coal to natural gas and further to renewables is happening in Asia and will be strengthened much more and occur much faster than anybody thinks. TCFD has become a mainstream issue in Japanese business circles within the space of a year. I call this a “Demand-side Driven Transformation.” This transformation will be the force to change the Asian energy sector.

Each year hydrogen and fuel cell projects funded by DOE's Hydrogen Program are reviewed for their merit during an Annual Merit Review and Peer Evaluation Meeting. The 2006 Annual Merit Review, held May 16-19, 2006 in Arlington, Va., showcased approximately 250 projects. Principal investigators presented their project status and results in oral and poster presentations, which are available in the 2006 Annual Merit Review Proceedings. A panel of more than 150 community experts peer reviewed two-t