A cluster‐based fault‐tolerant routing protocol for wireless sensor networks

Wireless sensor networks congestion occurs easily due to its centralized traffic pattern. Normally, mono-sync wireless sensor network experiences multiple traffic flow congestion in the dense environment of the network, which leads to excess energy consumption and severe packet loss. To overcome these issues, a congestion detection and alleviation mechanism using cluster based heuristic optimized hierarchical routing protocol is proposed in this paper. Here, congestion detection and alleviation utilize the features of sensor nodes. The congestion is categorized into two types: (i) node level congestion and (ii) link level congestion. The node level congestion is detected by assessing the buffer utilization and the interval amid the consecutive data packets. The link level congestion is considered with computing link usage utilizing back-off step of round robin carrier sense multi-access with collision avoidance. Congestion detection and alleviation reactively affected node/link through cuckoo hosted rider search multi-hop routing algorithm. It has two phases: the cluster head selection and multi-path routing. Cluster head selection is performed through Taylor multiple random forest kernel fuzzy C-means clustering algorithm and multi-path routing is performed through cuckoo hosted rider search multi-hop routing algorithm. The simulation of the proposed method is done in network simulator tool. Here, the performance metrics, like packet delivery ratio, delay, energy consumption, packet drop, overhead, network lifetime and throughput are calculated. The experimental outcomes of the proposed technique shows 11.6%, 18.4% and 28.1% lower delay, 78.2%, 65.4% and 52.6% higher packet delivery ratio, and 29.2%, 37.4% and 40.8% lower packet drop compared with the existing methods, like congestion detection and alleviation using multi-attribute decision-making in optimization-based hybrid congestion alleviation routing protocol in wireless sensor networks, congestion detection and alleviation using hybrid K-means with greedy best first search algorithms in packet rate reduction utilizing adaptive weight firefly algorithm ant colony optimization based routing protocol in wireless sensor networks and congestion detection and alleviation using multi-input time on task optimization algorithm for altered gravitational search algorithm routing protocol in wireless sensor networks.

Throughout the use of the small battery-operated sensor nodes encourage us to develop an energy-efficient routing protocol for wireless sensor networks (WSNs). The development of an energy-efficient routing protocol is a mainly adopted technique to enhance the lifetime of WSN. Many routing protocols are available, but the issue is still alive. Clustering is one of the most important techniques in the existing routing protocols. In the clustering-based model, the important thing is the selection of the cluster heads. In this paper, we have proposed a scheme that uses the bubble sort algorithm for cluster head selection by considering the remaining energy and the distance of the nodes in each cluster. Initially, the bubble sort algorithm chose the two nodes with the maximum remaining energy in the cluster and chose a cluster head with a small distance. The proposed scheme performs hierarchal routing and direct routing with some energy thresholds. The simulation will be performed in MATLAB to justify its performance and results and compared with the ECHERP model to justify its performance. Moreover, the simulations will be performed in two scenarios, gateway-based and without gateway to achieve more energy-efficient results.

The existing routing protocols for wireless sensor networks were not reasonable in design, which limited their application. Most of the existing studies did not take into account the energy consumption of the network and the balanced use of the energy of sensor nodes, which led to the unsatisfactory application effect of wireless sensor networks in some fields. Therefore, from the perspective of energy balance in wireless sensor networks, this paper proposed a construction method of an energy balance routing protocol in wireless sensor networks based on a fuzzy control strategy. Firstly, based on the analysis of the basic composition of wireless sensor networks and the structure of sensor nodes, this paper expounded the basic process of wireless data transmission and summarized the classification and characteristics of routing protocols in wireless sensor networks from different angles. Secondly, according to the node data transmission characteristics of wireless sensor networks, the energy balance use model of sensor nodes was established, and the design method of the energy balance routing protocol based on fuzzy control strategy was proposed, and the data transmission link was optimized. Finally, through experimental comparative analysis, the results showed that the energy balanced routing protocol proposed in this paper can effectively realize the energy balanced use of the network data transmission process. Compared with other common routing protocols, the wireless sensor network routing protocol proposed in this paper can not only improve the data transmission efficiency and reduce the data redundancy but also save energy consumption and prolong the network running time. The design method of routing protocol proposed in this paper will be conducive to the optimization and application of routing protocol in wireless sensor networks and provide a theoretical basis for the related research of wireless sensor networks.

Wireless sensor networks have drawn tremendous attentions from all fields because of their wide application. Maximizing network lifetime is one of the main problems in wireless sensor networks. This article proposes an energy-efficient routing protocol which adopts unequal clustering technology to solve the hot spots problem and proposes double cluster head strategy to reduce the energy consumption of head nodes in the clusters. In addition, to balance the energy consumption between cluster heads and cluster members, a hybrid cluster head rotation strategy based on time-driven and energy-driven is proposed, which can make the timing of rotation more reasonable and the energy consumption more efficient. Finally, we compare the proposed protocol with LEACH, DEBUC, and UCNPD by simulation experiments. The simulation results prove that our proposed protocol can effectively improve the performance in terms of network lifetime, energy consumption, energy balance, stability, and throughput.

A genetic algorithm based distance-aware routing protocol for wireless sensor networks

QoSNET: An integrated QoS network for routing protocols in large scale wireless sensor networks

Aimed at the problem of unbalanced energy consumption of cluster heads caused by inter-cluster communications in wireless sensor networks clustering routing protocols, a novel algorithm named cluster head load balanced clustering (CHLBC) is presented. Based on uneven distributed cluster heads, CHLBC builds backbone network's inter-cluster transit route which is composed of cluster heads and calculates relay traffic of cluster heads. Sensors take the cluster head's relay traffic into consideration in the process of choosing the best cluster head and realize load balance of cluster heads. Simulation results show that the routing protocol effectively balances the load among cluster heads and achieves an obvious improvement on the network lifetime.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) play a necessary position in todays actual world applications. WSNs are a team of autonomous sensor nodes that are geographically distributed to accumulate information and monitor events. WSNs are similarly sense that they rely on wireless connectivity and spontaneous formation of networks so that sensor information can be transported via wireless. Sometimes called dust network, minute sensors as small as dust referring to smart dust. WSNs are spatially distributed two to screen or bodily temperature, sound, pressure, etc. and to cooperatively ignore their data via the network to different locations. Each such sensor network node has typically various parts. Routing in WSNs in one of the important technique, because all node executes its battery power, if may be one node failure it collapse entire networks. Routing in WSNs is in reality difficult due to the intrinsic characteristics that differentiate these networks from different networks. The plan of routing protocols in WSN is affected via number of exigent factors. In this paper, a review on routing protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and performance of its execution.

Wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of thousands of sensor nodes with low power, low memory, and low computational capabilities. Therefore, energy issues have to be taken into considerations while designing WSN applications and protocols. Routing protocols such as LEACH and LEACH-C have been proposed for energy conservation in WSN. However, these typical protocols have drawback of unequal energy depletion in cluster heads (CHs) due to the different transmission distance from each CH to the base station (BS). In order to minimize the energy consumption caused by large distance of CHs from the BS, we propose dynamic clustering and distance aware routing protocol (DDAR) for WSN which takes into account of node distance for selecting CH, dynamic approach of selecting the CH nodes, and two level hierarchy of clustering with super cluster head (SCH) node near to the BS. Simulation results show that the proposed DDAR protocol consumes about 15.5% less energy than conventional LEACH protocol.

In wireless sensor networks, prolonging the life time is an important research topic. Based on the study of LEACH protocol and EEUC protocol, a novel zone-divided and energy-balanced clustering routing protocol for wireless sensor networks (ZECR) is brought up. The protocol divides the area into several zones according to the distance, and uses the unequal clustering method among these zones to solve the hot spots problem caused by multi-hop mechanism. In the cluster head election phase, only the nodes that meet the energy standard can participate in the competition; in the inter-cluster multi-hop routing phase, the cluster heads with high residual energy in high energy region will be selected as the relay node based on the advantages of zone-divided. Simulation results show that the protocol can effectively balance the energy consumption of each part of the network, solve the hot spots problem, apply to the energy heterogeneous network and prolong the network life time obviously.

Due to miniaturization of hardware and availability of low-cost, low-power sensors, Wireless Sensor Network and Multimedia Sensor Network applications are increasing day by day. Each application has a specific quality of service and experience requirements. The design of routing and MAC protocol which can fulfill the requirements of the application is challenging given the constrained nature of these devices. Considerable efforts are directed towards the design of energy efficient QoS-aware routing protocols. In this article, we present state of the art review of routing protocols for Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks while addressing the challenges and providing insight into research issues.

Clustered routing protocols in wireless sensor networks (WSN) provide significant advantages in energy saving and data preprocessing. However, the communication greatly depends on cluster heads, which leads to severe security problems. In order to solve this problem, a clustered routing protocol with distributed intrusion detection for WSN (WSN_DID) is proposed in this paper. In WSN_DID all nodes are organized to identify intruding cluster heads in a distributed way by predistributed random keys. The experiments demonstrate that compared with classic cluster-based routing protocol in WSN, energy dissipation in WSN_DID is rather less and the toleration of intrusion is elevated.

HEER – A delay-aware and energy-efficient routing protocol for wireless sensor networks

LEACH protocol is one of the clustering routing protocols in wireless sensor networks. The advantage of LEACH is that each node has the equal probability to be a cluster head, which makes the energy dissipation of each node be relatively balanced. In LEACH protocol, time is divided into many rounds, in each round, all the nodes contend to be cluster head according to a predefined criterion. This paper focuses on how to set the time length of each round, to prolong the lifetime of the network and increase throughput, which is denoted as the amount of data packs sent to the sink node. The functions of lifetime and throughput related to the time length of each round are deduced. These functions can be used to enhance the performance of cluster-based wireless sensor networks in terms of lifetime and throughput.

The advancement of smart city infrastructure depends heavily on the deployment of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) to monitor environmental conditions, traffic, healthcare systems, and public safety in real time. However, the limited energy resources of sensor nodes pose a critical challenge to network longevity, data reliability, and service continuity. This research presents the design and evaluation of an adaptive energy-efficient routing protocol that dynamically integrates residual energy levels, spatial topology awareness, and traffic load adaptability into routing and cluster-head selection processes. Using simulation-based experiments, the proposed protocol was compared with benchmark schemes including LEACH, TEEN, and SEP under varying traffic and deployment conditions. Results reveal that the proposed approach significantly delays first-node-death, increases overall network stability, and sustains higher Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR)s across different traffic loads, while simultaneously improving throughput and reducing end-to-end delay. Statistical analysis confirms that these improvements are systematic and not incidental, validating the hypothesis that energy-efficient routing in WSNs requires a holistic and adaptive design. The findings emphasize the potential of such protocols in enabling cost-effective, reliable, and scalable WSN deployments for smart cities. Practical recommendations derived from this research highlight the importance of incorporating adaptive cluster-head selection, multipath routing, and traffic-awareness into network design, while encouraging pilot projects and integration with renewable energy and edge computing to further optimize performance. Collectively, the study provides a pathway for transforming WSNs into robust, energy-aware communication backbones that underpin sustainable urban intelligence systems.