A compositional analysis of VP anaphors

The question of how children learn Function Words (FWs) is still a matter of debate among child language researchers. Are early multiword utterances based on lexically specific patterns or rather abstract grammatical relations? In this corpus study, we analyzed FWs having a highly predictable distribution in relation to Mean Length Utterance (MLU) an index of syntactic complexity in a large naturalistic sample of 315 monolingual French children aged 2 to 4 year-old. The data was annotated with a Part Of Speech Tagger (POS-T), belonging to computational tools from CHILDES. While eighteen FWs strongly correlated with MLU expressed either in word or in morpheme, stepwise regression analyses showed that subject pronouns predicted MLU. Factor analysis yielded a bifactor hierarchical model: The first factor loaded sixteen FWs among which eight had a strong developmental weight (third person singular verbs, subject pronouns, articles, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, modals, demonstrative pronouns and plural markers), whereas the second factor loaded complex FWs (possessive verbs and object pronouns). These findings challenge the lexicalist account and support the view that children learn grammatical forms as a complex system based on early instead of late structure building. Children may acquire FWs as combining words and build syntactic knowledge as a complex abstract system which is not innate but learned from multiple word input sentences context. Notably, FWs were found to predict syntactic development and sentence complexity. These results open up new perspectives for clinical assessment and intervention.

Preface Pronunciation Guide Lesson 1 Expressions De Base (Basic Expressions) Grammar I Definite articles. Gender of nouns Grammar II Indefinite articles Grammar III Subject pronouns and the verbs ?tre (to be) and avoir (to have). The interrogative Lesson 2 Au Restaurant (At The Restaurant) Grammar I Regular verbs in the present indicative Grammar II Present indicative of regular verbs ending in -IR and -RE Grammar III The negative form of ?tre and avoir Lesson 3 Au Grand Magasin (At The Department Store) Grammar I Adjective-noun agreement. Descriptive adjectives Grammar II The partitive constructions: du, de la, des, and de lA. Numbers Grammar III Present indicative of aller (to go). Question words Lesson 4 LAa?roport (At The Airport) Grammar I Present indicative of faire (to do, to make) Grammar II Quelle heure est-il? (What time is it?) More numbers Grammar III Present indicative of irregular verbs: pouvoir (to be able to) and vouloir (to want) Lesson 5 La Famille (The Family) Grammar I Present indicative of stem-changing verbs Grammar II Present indicative of conna?tre (to know) and savoir (to know). The difference between conna?tre and savoir Grammar III Negative constructions Answers for Lessons 1u5 Review Exam and Answers Lesson 6 LAh=tel (At The Hotel) Grammar I Idiomatic expressions with avoir Grammar II Verbs used with ? and de Grammar III Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns Lesson 7 Une F?te DAanniversaire (A Birthday Party) Grammar I Possessive adjectives Grammar II Possessive pronouns Grammar III Direct object nouns and pronouns Grammar IV The imperative form of ?tre, avoir, and general rules for known verbs Lesson 8 LA?picerie Du Coin (The Corner Grocery Store) Grammar I Pass? compos? of regular and irregular verbs with avoir Grammar II Pass? compos? of regular and irregular verbs with ?tre Grammar III Idiomatic expressions with avoir, falloir (to require), and valoir (to be worth) Lesson 9 La Banque (At The Bank) Grammar I Indirect object nouns and pronouns Grammar II Reflexive constructions Grammar III Reflexive verbs Lesson 10 La Gare (At The Railroad Station) Grammar I The imperfect indicative (imparfait) Grammar II Contrast of the imparfait and pass? compos? Grammar III The days of the week, months of the year, dates, and ordinal numbers 1u100 Answers for Lessons 6u10 Review Exam and Answers Lesson 11 Les Parties Du Corps (Parts of the Body) Grammar I Comparisons of inequality Grammar II Comparisons of equality. Superlatives Grammar III Future indicative of regular and irregular verbs Lesson 12 La Pharmacie (At the Drugstore) Grammar I Present subjunctive of regular verbs Grammar II Present subjunctive of stem-changing verbs Grammar III Present subjunctive with impersonal expressions: il faut, il vaut mieux, etc Lesson 13 La Voiture (The Automobile) Grammar I Present subjunctive of irregular verbs Grammar II Contrast of the indicative and subju...

After a brief outline of the principal episodes in the external histories of Romance creoles, the chapter surveys the principal aspects of phonology, morphology and syntax of Ibero-Romance-based creoles and French-based creoles. Topics dealt with include: vowels; consonants; morphosyntax of noun phrase (plural formation, determiners, subject pronouns, object pronouns, adjectives), verb phrase (tense, aspect, mood; copulas; (give/directional) serial verbs), and of sentence (word order, object marking, verb doubling in contrastive focus constructions, valency changing operations, interrogative and focus constructions).

In this paper, we examine the devices that the Ga language uses to express anaphoric relations, especially, such notions as one act on one self (reflexive). ‘A acts on B’ and ‘B acts on A’ (reciprocal) and other relationships involving nominal in a particular local domain that results in construing them as having the same referent. This paper, which draws heavily on Carnie (2013, 2002) Haegeman (2006), and Reuland (2001) show that (i) pronouns may function as anaphoric elements in certain syntactic contexts. (ii) reciprocal relations are expressed with verbs and he ‘self/body’ constructions which serve as the reciprocal marker and (iii) reflexives are marked with the use of verbs which indicate that action is being performed on the subject itself or a possessive pronoun plus he (self ) construction.

BOOK NOTICES 223 ters, but no indication of what principles underUe the distinction between permissible and impermissible clusters. One ofhis few analytical statements—that vowel and consonant length is non-phonemic (29, 67)—would have benefited from more detailed justification; if it is valid, it seems strange that pt and ptt are listed as distinct permitted consonant clusters. [Bernard Comrie, USC] The grammatical hierarchy ofMalayan Cantonese. By Siew-Yue Killingley . Newcastle upon Tyne, England : Grevatt & Grevatt, 1982. Pp. xxiv, 231. £5.70. This work, a revision of K's University of London doctoral thesis, is an extensive catalog of Cantonese sentence, clause, phrase, and word types, presented in a tagmemic model. It contains a great deal of data, presented in a format which makes it relatively accessible; however , most readers wiU probably have to work with the book for an hour or two to famiUarize themselves with the organization and some terminological conventions before they wiU be able to use it easily as a reference tool. Among the strengths of the book are the extensive exemplification, the exhaustive inventory of clause types and syntactic categories, and the unusually careful attention given to intonation and sentence-final particles. Certain weaknesses are inherent in the nature of the work; in particular, the admirable breadth of coverage precludes discussion in depth ofmany of them. Thus, whüe the treatment of interrogative constructions wiU satisfy many readers whose interest lies in that area, the material on sentential complementation (which is, of course, a much larger topic) is less comprehensive . The book wiU be extremely useful to anyone planning to undertake work on Cantonese syntax; typologists and students of Southeast Asian areal phenomena will find much of interest here, but cannot be sure of finding all the detail which their work may require. The physical format of the volume is quite unsatisfactory—a problem acknowledged by K: it is a lithographed typescript, reduced so as to fit two pages onto an 8 x 11" sheet, bound with fragüe and short-Uved tape. There is an exhaustive subject index, but no morpheme index. [Scott DeLancey, University of Oregon.] La lengua tlapaneca de Malinaltepec. By Jorge A. Suárez. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1983. Pp. xxiii, 641. Suárez, who unfortunately died in 1985, has here given us the first detailed monograph description of Tlapanec, an Otomanguean language of southwestern Mexico with about 30,000 speakers. A general introduction is followed by individual chapters on phonology (phonemes, including tones, and their aUophones, phonotactics, general morphophonemic alternations; 5-62), grammatical categories (63-97), morphology (of nouns, verbs, and other grammatical categories; 98-222), and syntax (of phrases and simplex and complex sentences; 223-364). There is also a sample text with morpheme glosses and translation. The second major part of the monograph is an extensive Tlapanec-Spanish vocabulary (377582 ), accompanied by a Spanish-Tlapanec index. FinaUy, there is a bibUography of previous work on Tlapanec. The entire description is comprehensive and on a high level. Tlapanec nominal and verbal morphology is extremely complex, not least in its tonal alternations, and those more interested in general theory may remain dissatisfied with S's essentiaUy word-and-paradigm analysis. But for a hitherto virtually undescribed language, it is essential that the data necessary for an analysis be presented, and S has certainly provided a wealth of data for anyone interested in re-analysing Tlapanec phonology and morphology. After struggling through so many descriptive grammars, trying to make sense out of vague statements about tense and aspect, I found it a pleasure to see S's clear demonstration that Tlapanec operates in terms of a relative tense opposition (75). The discussion of syntax is particularly extensive, and includes some topics that seem tojustify further monographic study. For instance, there are different forms depending on whether a 3rd person inflection refers to an NP mentioned expUcitly in the clause (S caUs this remission; 69, 89, 322-5). Since Tlapanec is a PRO-drop lanaguage, for 'he left' one can either include the subject pronoun (with remission ) or omit it (without remission). S emphasizes that remission is essentiaUy a syntactic phenomenon—although in appropriate cases it can...

BOOK NOTICES 223 ters, but no indication of what principles underUe the distinction between permissible and impermissible clusters. One ofhis few analytical statements—that vowel and consonant length is non-phonemic (29, 67)—would have benefited from more detailed justification; if it is valid, it seems strange that pt and ptt are listed as distinct permitted consonant clusters. [Bernard Comrie, USC] The grammatical hierarchy ofMalayan Cantonese. By Siew-Yue Killingley . Newcastle upon Tyne, England : Grevatt & Grevatt, 1982. Pp. xxiv, 231. £5.70. This work, a revision of K's University of London doctoral thesis, is an extensive catalog of Cantonese sentence, clause, phrase, and word types, presented in a tagmemic model. It contains a great deal of data, presented in a format which makes it relatively accessible; however , most readers wiU probably have to work with the book for an hour or two to famiUarize themselves with the organization and some terminological conventions before they wiU be able to use it easily as a reference tool. Among the strengths of the book are the extensive exemplification, the exhaustive inventory of clause types and syntactic categories, and the unusually careful attention given to intonation and sentence-final particles. Certain weaknesses are inherent in the nature of the work; in particular, the admirable breadth of coverage precludes discussion in depth ofmany of them. Thus, whüe the treatment of interrogative constructions wiU satisfy many readers whose interest lies in that area, the material on sentential complementation (which is, of course, a much larger topic) is less comprehensive . The book wiU be extremely useful to anyone planning to undertake work on Cantonese syntax; typologists and students of Southeast Asian areal phenomena will find much of interest here, but cannot be sure of finding all the detail which their work may require. The physical format of the volume is quite unsatisfactory—a problem acknowledged by K: it is a lithographed typescript, reduced so as to fit two pages onto an 8 x 11" sheet, bound with fragüe and short-Uved tape. There is an exhaustive subject index, but no morpheme index. [Scott DeLancey, University of Oregon.] La lengua tlapaneca de Malinaltepec. By Jorge A. Suárez. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1983. Pp. xxiii, 641. Suárez, who unfortunately died in 1985, has here given us the first detailed monograph description of Tlapanec, an Otomanguean language of southwestern Mexico with about 30,000 speakers. A general introduction is followed by individual chapters on phonology (phonemes, including tones, and their aUophones, phonotactics, general morphophonemic alternations; 5-62), grammatical categories (63-97), morphology (of nouns, verbs, and other grammatical categories; 98-222), and syntax (of phrases and simplex and complex sentences; 223-364). There is also a sample text with morpheme glosses and translation. The second major part of the monograph is an extensive Tlapanec-Spanish vocabulary (377582 ), accompanied by a Spanish-Tlapanec index. FinaUy, there is a bibUography of previous work on Tlapanec. The entire description is comprehensive and on a high level. Tlapanec nominal and verbal morphology is extremely complex, not least in its tonal alternations, and those more interested in general theory may remain dissatisfied with S's essentiaUy word-and-paradigm analysis. But for a hitherto virtually undescribed language, it is essential that the data necessary for an analysis be presented, and S has certainly provided a wealth of data for anyone interested in re-analysing Tlapanec phonology and morphology. After struggling through so many descriptive grammars, trying to make sense out of vague statements about tense and aspect, I found it a pleasure to see S's clear demonstration that Tlapanec operates in terms of a relative tense opposition (75). The discussion of syntax is particularly extensive, and includes some topics that seem tojustify further monographic study. For instance, there are different forms depending on whether a 3rd person inflection refers to an NP mentioned expUcitly in the clause (S caUs this remission; 69, 89, 322-5). Since Tlapanec is a PRO-drop lanaguage, for 'he left' one can either include the subject pronoun (with remission ) or omit it (without remission). S emphasizes that remission is essentiaUy a syntactic phenomenon—although in appropriate cases it can...

Verbal morphology has been identified as a particularly vulnerable domain for adult heritage speakers (HSs) of Spanish, especially when it involves the selection of subjunctive mood. A minimal amount is known, however, about the potential effects of the variability associated with these forms on the acquisition of related epiphenomena, such as the anaphoric relations and binding constraints of complements that select subjunctive. The present investigation addresses this gap in the research by focusing on how HSs express and interpret subject co-referentiality and disjoint reference in desiderative constructions. Results from two experimental tasks (a Truth-Value judgment and a Sentence Completion task) revealed that participants’ Spanish proficiency was a significant predictor of their performance. In particular, more advanced HSs exhibited a higher likelihood of linking the presence of subjunctive to subject disjoint reference (a pattern observed among most Spanish controls) and a higher probability of using this form to express subject disjoint-reference in production. Furthermore, optionality in this domain was significantly linked to the degree to which HSs restructured the referential properties associated with subjunctive complements. Specifically, participants who exhibited lower rates of structural and morphological variability in connection to the expression of disjoint-reference also appeared to be more likely to assign this reading to the null subjects of subjunctive complements and reject the possibility of subject co-referentiality. These findings provide new evidence of how syntactic dependencies such as subject obviation and control are developed among heritage speakers of Spanish and explore the potential role of structural and morphological optionality in their (re)-configuration.

The chapter Two in Wang Bi version(王弼本) corresponds to chapter One of Chu bamboo Chujian version(楚簡本) because Chu bamboo Chujian version(楚簡本) does not include a chapter equivalent to chapter One in Wang Bi version(王弼本). Accordingly, the chapter Two would be very important one in Daodejing(道德經). But the interpretations for the first sentence of the chapter Two, ‘天下皆知美之爲美, 斯惡已.’ are very different each other according to translator so that whole meaning of the chapter Two might be varied depending upon how to interpret the sentence.
 The purpose of this study is designed to newly interpret the sentence, ‘天下皆知美之爲美, 斯惡已.’ after suggesting the causes for different interpretations on the sentence in the past and the problems.
 For ‘天下皆知美之爲美, 斯惡已.’, its interpretation can be varied according to in what meanings ‘Wei(爲: to become)’ and words just before ‘Yi(已)’ are figured out, and according to thing to be pointed out by demonstrative pronoun ‘Si(斯: this)’. However, it is difficult to provide a right interpretation in existing way.
 The subject of ‘天下皆知美之爲美.’ is Jie(皆: all) and Tianxia(天下: under heaven) is a modifier for Jie(皆). Zhi(知: to know) is main verb and ‘美之爲美’ is a final clause. In the final clause, the subject is Mei(美: beauty), Zhi(之) is subjective case particle, Wei(爲) is a verb meaning ‘to become ~.’, and Mei(美) is a complement. Accordingly, a new interpretation on the sentence says, ‘all the people under heaven know that beauty becomes beauty.’ And demonstrative pronoun ‘Si(斯: this)’ points out ‘Weimei(爲美: to become beauty)’, ‘E(惡: ugliness)’ is a complement. Accordingly, ‘斯惡已’ is interpreted as ‘to become beauty is ugliness.’ That is, ‘惡之爲美: ugliness becomes beauty.’ Therefore, the sentence, ‘天下皆知美之爲美, 斯惡已.’ can be interpreted as ‘when all the people under heaven know that beauty becomes beauty, to become beauty is ugliness.’

In addition to roots for familiar classes like verb, noun, and adjective, Mayan languages have a class of roots traditionally called “positional”. Positional roots are distinct from other roots most prominently in terms of requiring derivation into stems of one of the more familiar categories to be used. The goal of this work is to show that the behavior of positionals follows from semantic facts, in particular, the fact that they denote measure functions of type ⟨e,d⟩. This conclusion is supported through a series of novel arguments from the Mayan language Kaqchikel that positional roots have a scalar semantics. It then argues for the type ⟨e,d⟩ analysis by contrasting them with gradable root adjectives, which similarly make reference to ordered degrees on a scale, but which have a relational type—namely, ⟨d,et⟩. I then show that a core function of positional morphology, and the morpheme that derives positional stative predicates in particular, is to take positional roots into stems of type ⟨d,et⟩, which will account for the fact that derived positionals behave semantically like root adjectives. In this way, this work not only presents a novel account of the Mayan data, but provide additional evidence for the proposal that even within languages there can be differences in the fine-grained compositional structure of degree-denoting expressions.

This paper deals with the development of discourse competence in German-, Russian- and Bulgarian-speaking children. In particular, it examines the use of anaphoric pronominal reference in elicited narrations of children between the ages of 2;6 and 6;0. As the pronominal (and nominal) systems of target German, Russian and Bulgarian differ in the repertoire and functions of anaphoric elements we will examine which kind of noun phrases children use to make reference to story participants. In a second step of the analysis, we will investigate how pronominal expressions relate to antecedents. In this respect the pronominal form of the anaphor, the syntactic function of the antecedent and the distance between antecedent and anaphor will be analyzed. The findings will be discussed with regard to predictions made by proposals such as the Complementary Hypothesis (Bosch, Rozario, and Zhao 2003) which assumes an asymmetry between the use of personal pro-nouns and demonstrative pronouns when referring back to subject or object antecedents.

Abboud P., 1964, THESIS U TEXAS AUSTI; Alkalesi Y., 2007, MODERN IRAQI ARABIC; Badawi Elsaid, 2004, MODERN WRITTEN ARABI; Barthelemy Adrien, 1935, DICT ARABE FRANCAIS; Bravmann M. M., 1971, J SEMITIC STUD, V16, P50; Brustad Kristen, 2000, SYNTAX SPOKEN ARABIC; Cantarino Vicente, 1974, SYNTAX MODERN ARABIC; Cowell Mark, 2005, REFERENCE GRAMMAR SY; Diem W., 2002, TRANSLOKATIVE VERBEN; Diessel H, 2006, COGN LINGUIST, V17, P463, DOI 10.1515-COG.2006.015; Dillman A., 1907, ETHIOPIC GRAMMAR; Erwin Wallace, 1963, SHORT REFERENCE GRAM; Esseesy Mohssen, 2010, GRAMMATICALIZATION A; Fleisch H., 1974, ETUDES ARABE DIALECT; Gensler Orin D., 2003, LINGUISTIC TYPOLOGY, V7, P187, DOI 10.1515-lity.2003.015; Gensler Orin D., 1998, DIACHRONICA, V15, P231, DOI 10.1075-dia.15.2.03gen; HARRIS Z. S., 1936, GRAMMAR PHOENICIAN L; Hasan A., 2007, AL NAHW AL WAFI; Hasselbach R, 2007, J AM ORIENTAL SOC, V127, P1; Khramahlkov C.R., 2001, PHOENICIAN PUNIC GRA; Kurylowicz J., 1965, DIOGENES, V13, P55, DOI DOI 10.1177-039219216501305105; LIPINSKI E., 2001, SEMITIC LANGUAGES OU; RECKENDORF HERMANN, 1921, ARABISCHE SYNTAX; Retso Jan, 1987, Z DTSCH MORGENLANDIS, V126, P219; Sibawayhi Abu. Bishr Amr b. Utman, 1424, AL KITAB; Sieny Mahmoud Esma'il, 1978, SYNTAX URBAN HIJAZI; Wilmsen D., 2012, ARABIC LANGUAGE ARAB; Wilmsen D., 2011, SHADOW ARABIC; Wilmsen D., 2013, ARABICA IN PRESS; Wilmsen D, 2010, ARABICA, V57, P99, DOI 10.1163-057053910X12625688929228; Wright W., 1981, GRAMMAR ARABIC LANGU; Zwicky Arnold M., 1977, CLITICS

This article examines the internal structure of personal pronouns in Inuktut. Building on previous work on syntactic variation and universals in personal pronoun systems (Harley and Ritter 2002, Ghomeshi and Massam 2020) and drawing on arguments that these and demonstrative pronouns are structurally complex (Déchaine and Wiltschko 2002, Leu 2015), it is argued that Inuktut pronouns are morphosyntactically complex, with exponents realizing multiple functional heads as well as an overt root. In particular, it is claimed that (local) person is represented twice, both as a root and in a higher functional projection. Previous arguments that Inuktut pronouns should instead be analyzed as D heads based on Adnominal Pronoun Constructions are also addressed (Yuan 2018, 2021).

BackgroundA composite biological structure, such as an insect head or abdomen, contains many internal structures with distinct functions. Composite structures are often used in RNA-seq studies, though it is unclear how expression of the same gene in different tissues and structures within the same structure affects the measurement (or even utility) of the resulting patterns of gene expression. Here we determine how complex composite tissue structure affects measures of gene expression using RNA-seq.ResultsWe focus on two structures in the honey bee (the sting gland and digestive tract) both contained within one larger structure, the whole abdomen. For each of the three structures, we used RNA-seq to identify differentially expressed genes between two developmental stages, nurse bees and foragers. Based on RNA-seq for each structure-specific extraction, we found that RNA-seq with composite structures leads to many false negatives (genes strongly differentially expressed in particular structures which are not found to be differentially expressed within the composite structure). We also found a significant number of genes with one pattern of differential expression in the tissue-specific extraction, and the opposite in the composite extraction, suggesting multiple signals from such genes within the composite structure. We found these patterns for different classes of genes including transcription factors.ConclusionsMany RNA-seq studies currently use composite extractions, and even whole insect extractions, when tissue and structure specific extractions are possible. This is due to the logistical difficultly of micro-dissection and unawareness of the potential errors associated with composite extractions. The present study suggests that RNA-seq studies of composite structures are prone to false negatives and difficult to interpret positive signals for genes with variable patterns of local expression. In general, our results suggest that RNA-seq on large composite structures should be avoided unless it is possible to demonstrate that the effects shown here do not exist for the genes of interest.

This chapter aims to evaluate the similarities and differences between the verbal systems of the Jewish dialect of Gabes and other Maghrebi dialects. Notably, both Jewish Gabes and Jewish Djerba exhibit gender distinction in the 2FS forms marked by the /-i/ suffix, a feature absent in Jewish Tunis, where masculine forms are also used for the feminine. The study affirms the sedentary nature of Jewish Gabes, indicated by the /-āw/ suffix in verbs with a weak third radical in stem I, in contrast to the /u/ found in Bedouin dialects. Regarding the vowel distribution of stem I verbal forms, Jewish Gabes shares similarities with neighbouring Jewish dialects, particularly in the basic theme vowel being /ə/ or /a/ in proximity to gutturals. In contrast, Muslim dialects and Jewish Wad-Souf demonstrate a broader array of vowel qualities. Additionally, the analysis reveals that Jewish Gabes has developed an alternative method for expressing the passive voice, a bipartite construction involving an active verb with a personal object pronoun.

Our knowledge of the internal structure of asteroids relies entirely on inferences from remote sensing observations of the surface and theoretical modeling. Many fundamental questions are still unresolved. Is the body a monolithic piece of rock or a rubble-pile, and how high is the porosity? What is the typical size distribution of the constituent blocks? Are these blocks homogeneous or heterogeneous? Direct measurements of an asteroid’s deep interior structure are needed to better understand asteroid accretion and their dynamic evolution. The characterization of the asteroids’ internal structure is crucial for science, planetary defense and exploration.In orbit sounding Radars are the most mature instruments capable of achieving the objective of characterizing the internal structure and heterogeneity, both for the benefit of science as well as for planetary defense or exploration. It is the goal of JuRa on cruise to probe Didymos binary system in 2027 and aim of two instruments under development for the ESA Ramses Mission and the Caltech Mission is to study the deep interior of Apophis in 2029. JuRaJuRa, the Juventas radar, onboard the ESA HERA mission, is a monostatic radar, BPSK coded and inherited from CONSERT/Rosetta. The center frequency of 60 MHz provides the capability to probe the internal structure to a depth of 100 meters or more, with a limited vertical resolution of about 20 m. Multipass processing makes it possible to create a 3D tomographic image of the interior. HERA was launched in October 2024 to deeply investigate the Didymos binary system and in particular its moonlet Dimorphos, five years after the DART/NASA impact. On the ESA mission HERA, the Juventas 6U CubeSat is carrying the Juventas Radar (JuRa).JuRa maps the backscatter coefficient (sigma zero - σ0) of the surface and of the subsurface, which quantifies the returned power per unit surface or volume. It is related to the degree of heterogeneity on the wavelength scale and to the dielectric contrast of heterogeneities, giving access to both, the sub-meter texture of the constituent material and larger scale structures.The main objective of JuRA is to characterize the asteroid interior, to identify internal geological structure such as layers, voids and sub-aggregates, to bring out the aggregate structure and to characterize its constituent blocks in terms of size distribution from sub-metric to global scale. The second objective is to estimate the average permittivity and to monitor its spatial variation in order to obtain information on its composition and porosity. The characterization of the constitutive material and its spatial organization both on the main and on the moon will help to better model the formation and stability conditions of the binary system and the response of Dimorphos to the DART impact. Radar to ApophisKnowledge of the internal structure of Apophis is crucial to better understand its accretion and dynamical evolution, to better study its stability conditions, and to model its response to the gravitational constraints imposed by its approach to induced by Earth close approach.For the RAMSES mission, the radar is operating in monostatic mode on one of the CubeSats and deeply inheriting from JuRa on Juventas/Hera, with minor modification. The radar is currently under development and under responsibility of Tyvak International, prime contractor for the CubeSat development. For the electronics (1U, 1kg), minor optimizations are proposed based on the experience from JuRa (mainly thermal optimization, adjustment of the network position and software modifications). The interfaces are revised depending on the carrying platform inheriting from Hera/Milani. For the antenna, a crossed dipole is proposed, as for JuRa on Juventas, providing measurements in full polarization. The cross dipole is consisting of 4 booms of 65g each. An optimization of the boom length and matching network will be required depending on the platform, on the antenna accommodation and on the solar array geometry.The Caltech Mission to Apophis is under study by Caltech and JPL. For his mission, the radar is a customized version of JuRa, operating in bistatic mode: the two satellites are maintained opposite from each other around Apophis, using semi-autonomous navigation based on optical cameras. Electronics on the two platforms measure the signal transmitted throughout Apophis, like done for CONSERT on Rosetta/ESA. Using the synchronization provided by the Inter Satellite Link (ISL), the radar provides an absolute measurement of the propagation delay between the platforms through the asteroid. This provides a direct measurement of the dielectric permittivity, which is related to composition and microporosity of the inner structure of Apophis. Partial coverage will provide slices of the body with an average characterization and its spatial variability to characterize large scale structures. Dense coverage will provide a larger diversity of observation angles, the bistatic mode will then allow a complete 3D tomography to recover the permittivity contrast throughout the volume.In addition to modifications depending on the new platform and the antenna accommodation and the adjustments based on JuRa lesson learned, the implementation of the bistatic mode requires a deeper revisit of the software and firmware to preserve synchronization of the two electronics, while the ISL is ensuring the control of the timing and the frequency.In this talk we will present the instruments, their status, performances and goals as well as the science objectives in the context of the different targets.