A corpus-based approach to English loanwords

The paper explores English loanwords and the reasons behind their increase in the daily speech of sample students chosen randomly at Mu'tah University in Jordan. The sample students are 25 males and 25 females of the faculties of sciences and humanities. To collect the data required, a questionnaire consisting of five questions was developed and given to the respondents. The study shows that students at Mu'tah University use English loanwords in their speech for reasons such prestige, habits, study need and modernity. The study also reports that English loanwords are used more by subjects of the scientific faculties than by those of the humanities. In addition, females tend to employ English in their daily speech more often than males do. The main reason behind the respondents' employment of English words instead of Arabic ones is that they assume that such English words have no equivalents in Arabic and these words have become part of their habits.Keyword: English, Loanwords, Colloquial, Arabic1. IntroductionColloquial Jordanian Arabic, many other languages and dialects around the world, incorporates a lot of English loanwords which are used in Jordanian's daily speech among which is the academic sector whereby university student's exhibit lots of these loanwords. Loanwords are always around us even though we sometimes do not realize their presence. Usually, English loanwords proceed through stages till they acquire frequent usage among members of the community. At this early stage, a foreign word is used by a small group of people. In the second stage, this word acquires wider acceptability and usage where it can be called a borrowed word. In the final stage, when the word becomes popular and used even by laymen, it can be referred to a loanword which is almost similar to the frequency of any native word used by students.Duane (2008) defines a loanword as a word taken from one language and used by another contemporary language, without translation, while maintaining with minimal modification the meaning it had in the source language. Many people use loanwords without any idea that they are not originally Arabic words, but it seems that the academic sphere is attracted more by having loanwords than any other sector of the community. This is attributed to the fact that, these words have to do with technological advancement and employment of up-to-date English loanwords by university students.Students at Mu'tah University have reasons for using English words during their daily speech. These reasons are related to personal needs that include prestige, showing off, modernity, and education requirements and so on. It seems that prestige and showing off in particular are affected by factors such the students' age, gender and education level. The usage of these loanwords has been increasing rapidly particularly among this group of the community. Some loanwords undergo morphological modifications to the extent that they appear if they were Arabic words. The current research addresses sample of university students whose areas of specialization are other than English, in an attempt to measure the most frequent English loanwords in the course of their daily speech. To my knowledge, this is the first study that deals with this issue and tackles the reasons behind the increase of these English loanwords in the speech of sample subjects.In examining the students' outcome of English loanwords at Mu'tah University, the paper seeks answers to the following questions:(1) Why are English loanwords used in Colloquial Jordanian Arabic, in particular among University students?(2) Does gender affect the usage of loaning words?2. Literature ReviewUnder this heading, with relying on some scholars' point of view, loanwords are those words which come from a foreign language into another to be used by its native speakers. Loanwords are defined words adopted from another language and completely or partially naturalized. …

Plasticien : parlez-vous franglais ? Étude sur les emprunts à l’anglais en chirurgie plastique

A fundamental empirical question regarding judgments about events is whether experienced absolute frequencies or relative frequencies are relied on when the likelihood of a particular occurrence is judged. The present research explicates the conditions under which people rely on remembered raw absolute frequencies versus on inferred relative frequencies or proportions when making predictions. Participants saw opinion poll results for candidates prior to an election and, on the basis of these, made judgments concerning the likelihood of each candidate's winning this election. Certain candidates demonstrated a high absolute frequency of winning in the polls, whereas other candidates had high relative win frequencies. The results indicated that adults are cognitively flexible with regard to the inputs used in this judgment. Certain stimulus event configurations induced reasoning by way of absolute frequencies, whereas other configurations elicited judgments based on relative frequencies. More specifically, as the relational complexity of the event structure increased and more inferences were required to make predictions, the tendency to rely on absolute, as opposed to relative, frequencies also increased.

“Trump Shit Goes into Overdrive”: Tracing Trump on 4chan/pol/

BackgroundCollisions (i.e. tackles, ball carries, and collisions) in the rugby league have the potential to increase injury risk, delay recovery, and influence individual and team performance. Understanding the collision demands of the rugby league may enable practitioners to optimise player health, recovery, and performance.ObjectiveThe aim of this review was to (1) characterise the dose of collisions experienced within senior male rugby league match-play and training, (2) systematically and critically evaluate the methods used to describe the relative and absolute frequency and intensity of collisions, and (3) provide recommendations on collision monitoring.MethodsA systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and Web of Science) using keywords was undertaken. A meta-analysis provided a pooled mean of collision frequency or intensity metrics on comparable data sets from at least two studies.ResultsForty-three articles addressing the absolute (n) or relative collision frequency (n min−1) or intensity of senior male rugby league collisions were included. Meta-analysis of video-based studies identified that forwards completed approximately twice the number of tackles per game than backs (n = 24.6 vs 12.8), whilst ball carry frequency remained similar between backs and forwards (n = 11.4 vs 11.2). Variable findings were observed at the subgroup level with a limited number of studies suggesting wide-running forwards, outside backs, and hit-up forwards complete similar ball carries whilst tackling frequency differed. For microtechnology, at the team level, players complete an average of 32.7 collisions per match. Limited data suggested hit-up and wide-running forwards complete the most collisions per match, when compared to adjustables and outside backs. Relative to playing time, forwards (n min−1 = 0.44) complete a far greater frequency of collision than backs (n min−1 = 0.16), with data suggesting hit-up forwards undertake more than adjustables, and outside backs. Studies investigating g force intensity zones utilised five unique intensity schemes with zones ranging from 2–3 g to 13–16 g. Given the disparity between device setups and zone classification systems between studies, further analyses were inappropriate. It is recommended that practitioners independently validate microtechnology against video to establish criterion validity.ConclusionsVideo- and microtechnology-based methods have been utilised to quantify collisions in the rugby league with differential collision profiles observed between forward and back positional groups, and their distinct subgroups. The ball carry demands of forwards and backs were similar, whilst tackle demands were greater for forwards than backs. Microtechnology has been used inconsistently to quantify collision frequency and intensity. Despite widespread popularity, a number of the microtechnology devices have yet to be appropriately validated. Limitations exist in using microtechnology to quantify collision intensity, including the lack of consistency and limited validation. Future directions include application of machine learning approaches to differentiate types of collisions in microtechnology datasets.

Measuring condom use accurately is important to understanding sexual behaviors; however, there is still no consensus on the criterion standard of condom use measurement. In this study, authors aimed to investigate if nonresponse rates were higher when absolute or relative frequency condom use questions were used. This study used Check It study data of Black men who have sex with women aged 15 to 26 years in New Orleans, LA. All men underwent a survey of sexual behavior, which included questions on condom use. From January 2017 to August 2019, participants were asked for the number of sex acts during which they had used a condom (absolute frequency question), and after August 2019 until March 2020, this was changed to response options of "never," "sometimes," or "always" (relative frequency question). Participants could refuse to answer the question; the rate of refusal was tabulated by question type to determine if nonresponse rates differed. There were 1907 participants included in the study, with data on 2957 partnerships. Of those asked the relative frequency question, 92.7% responded compared with 86.1% who were asked the absolute frequency. In generalized estimating equation modeling, those asked the relative frequency question had 2.42 (95% confidence interval, 1.42-4.13; P < 0.001) greater odds of response than those asked the absolute frequency question. Relative frequency questions may be more likely to elicit a response, in research among this population. There is no current criterion standard for measuring condom use in surveys. This study demonstrated that asking participants about their condom use qualitatively (i.e., whether they use condoms "never," "sometimes," or "always"), as opposed to asking them to provide the number of sex acts during which they used a condom, was associated with lower rates of nonresponse. Investigators should consider using qualitative condom use questions to maximize response rates.

&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;This study aims to capture the image of Muslim youth in the national media Jawa Pos online using corpus-based linguistic analysis. The tendency and alignment of the media in portraying Muslim youth can lead to positive, negative, and neutral public opinion. This research is a text study using a quantitative and qualitative descriptive approach, by collecting news with the keywords Muslim/Islamic youth on Jawapos online and obtaining 39 news stories with 12,636 words. The news text is then analyzed and applied using Antcont to obtain linguistic features of word frequency, collocation, and concordance with descriptive linguistic analysis. The research results show that; the frequency of words that are significant means that the Jawa Pos online in reporting on Muslim youth tends to be general, with the involvement of government activities in places of worship, namely masjid. The emergence of collocations tends to be more about reporting on mosque youth, although there is a tendency for political elements and implies messages and actions that must be carried out by youth. Whereas with the emergence of concordance, this media provides definitions to opinions about the meaning of Muslim youth in general, both negative, neutral, and positive, and more often generates news with a positive and balanced tendency. From this result, the Indonesian national media should report in a balanced manner in constructing the image of Muslim youth in Indonesia, where the majority of the population is Muslim.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Keywords - &lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Corpus Analysis, Imaging, Muslim Youth, National Online Media.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

Given inequitable access to learning resources caused by socioeconomic and historical issues, many Indigenous students have fallen behind grade expectations. This is in particular critical at the high school level, with increased academic English language demands in their learning of content areas. This paper reports on an exploratory study using corpus analysis that examined Indigenous students’ vocabulary use in verbal narratives, a spoken corpus—the representation of adolescent oral language competence at the school. It evaluated the feasibility, in terms of vocabulary coverages, of using both human-created and AI-generated narrative curriculum materials with enriched vocabulary to support culturally responsive vocabulary instruction. The study was conducted in an Indigenous high school in Canada, located in a remote First Nation community where most students spoke Ojibwe as their first language. The results found that Indigenous students’ narratives used a significant percentage of the first 1000 high frequency words and a small percentage of the second 1000 high frequency and academic words. Human-created and AI-generated narratives had a significantly higher percentage of the second 1000 high frequency words than Indigenous students’ narratives. Finally, AI-generated narratives contained a significantly higher percentage of academic words than both Indigenous youth’s and human-created narratives. The implications of the findings indicate that a data-driven corpus-based language pedagogy can be effective developing in innovative vocabulary instructional materials for future CALL interventions to support Indigenous youths. This can be achieved in light of culturally responsive pedagogy by leveraging Indigenous oral literacy traditions of storytelling, the youths’ narrative skills and their interests and aspirations. The present study has shown that some AI tools, along with carefully piloted prompts, have the capacity to efficiently co-develop vocabulary instructional content.

ABSTRACTThe Boston Naming Test (BNT) was designed to present items in order of difficulty based on word frequency. Changes in word frequencies over time, however, would frustrate extrapolation in clinical and research settings based on the theoretical construct because performance on the BNT might reflect changes in ecological frequency of the test items, rather than performance across items of increasing difficulty. This study identifies the ecological frequency of BNT items at the time of publication using the American Heritage Word Frequency Book and determines changes in frequency over time based on the frequency distribution of BNT items across a current corpus, the Corpus of Contemporary American English. Findings reveal an uneven distribution of BNT items across 2 corpora and instances of negligible differentiation in relative word frequency across test items. As BNT items are not presented in order from least to most frequent, clinicians and researchers should exercise caution in relying on the BNT as presenting items in increasing order of difficulty. A method is proposed for distributing confrontation-naming items to be explicitly measured against test items that are normally distributed across the corpus of a given language.

letter identities (ALIs) are an early representation in visual word recognition that are specific to written language. They do not reflect visual or phonological features, but rather encode the identities of letters independent of case, font, sound, and so forth. How could the visual system come to develop such a representation? We propose that because many letters look similar regardless of case, font, and other characteristics, these provide common contexts for visually dissimilar uppercase and lowercase forms of other letters (e.g., e between k and y in key and E in the visually similar context K-Y). Assuming that the distribution of words' relative frequencies is comparable in upper- and lowercase (that just as key is more frequent than pew, KEY is more frequent than PEW), these common contexts will also be similarly distributed in the two cases. We show how this statistical regularity could lead Hebbian learning to produce ALIs in a competitive architecture. We present a self-organizing artificial neural network that illustrates this idea and produces ALIs when presented with the most frequent words from a beginning reading corpus, as well as with artificial input.

Fundamental frequency (F0) difference limens (DLs) were measured versus F0 for sine- and random-phase harmonic complexes bandpass-filtered into low- or high-frequency regions, with 3-dB passbands of 2.5–3.5 and 5–7 kHz, respectively. In all cases, F0 DLs decreased dramatically with increasing F0 as approximately the tenth harmonic appeared in the passband. Generally, F0 DLs were similar in both frequency regions for complexes with similar harmonic numbers and phase relationships. However, F0 DLs were larger in the high-frequency than the low-frequency region for random-phase complexes containing only harmonics above the tenth, suggesting a possible role for additional fine-structure information in the low-frequency region. The dependence of F0 discrimination on relative frequency presents a significant challenge to autocorrelation (AC) models of pitch perception, in which predictions generally depend more on absolute frequency and phase locking. To represent this relative frequency effect, a ‘‘lag window’’ modification to the Meddis and O’Mard [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 102, 1811–1820 (1997)] AC model was introduced, restricting each channel’s AC representation to a limited range of lags relative to the center frequency (CF). Thus in each channel, the AC model responds best to F0’s whose dominant harmonics fall near the CF. [Work supported by NIH Grant Nos. 5T32-DC-00038 and R01-DC-05216.]

Linguistic gender research has originated from Western academia and gone through centennial and continual development throughout the birth and growth of linguistics. Lately, the interjection words, serving as an observable but marginal lexical index, have played an increasingly significant role in many aspects of linguistic studies for recent decades, for example, in the way the experts analyze the vocal expression of emotion, study the cross-lingual analysis in Japanese and English, and many other applications. This paper adopts three classifications of interjection words noise-like primary interjections, word-like primary interjections, and secondary interjections to further explore the relationship between gender and each classification of interjections on the platform of YouTube. The randomly chosen videos of YouTubers, fifty male YouTubers, and fifty female ones, are transcribed into words and analyzed systematically with the assistance of the structured questionnaire and the corpus analysis. Consequently and generally, male YouTubers using the interjections are significantly different from those female YouTubers on word frequency (p&lt;0.05) which agreed with the data from noise-like primary interjections and secondary interjections but disagreed with word-like primary interjections. It suggests that gender does influence the common usage of the interjections significantly, but there are still some exceptions, like the word-like primary interjections.

This study argues that corpus analysis has yet to incorporate probabilistic reasoning into the measurement of dispersion. This proposal continues a recent observation that some commonly used dispersion measures were impaired by an extreme sensitivity to the random noise characterizing any real-world data set. This article will show that this could have been avoided if (a) the underlying metaphor for ‘corpus dispersion’ had been more carefully considered and (b) the measures had been derived from an appropriate probability mass distribution. The text then proposes a computationally efficient dispersion measure developed from a Poisson model of an unbiased word dispersion. Unlike several current measures, this measure is shown to give a score that is meaningful at all word frequencies while being more sensitive to real dispersional bias and less sensitive to noise.

Acrocentric association was investigated in peripheral blood lymphocytes of twins (10 female monozygotic and 11 females dizygotic pairs), newborns and both parents (30 families), and spouses (51 pairs). Seventy two hour cultures were G-banded and scored for both absolute and relative acrocentric association frequency, except in the case of the spouse pairs where only the absolute frequency was measured. Both relative and absolute parameters of acrocentric association show positive correlations between relatives with the values being highest and most consistent in monozygotic twins, intermediate in parent and offspring, and most variable in dizygotic twins. Husband and wife pairs from our family collections show a positive correlation for the absolute parameter but not for relative parameters. The environmental factors responsible have not been identified. A rough estimate of broad sense heritability (0.81) has been made for the relative parameters. It probably contains a large component due to genetic dominance. Heritability of the absolute parameters is probably lower than for the relative parameters though estimation of its value is complicated by inconsistent results. A model is proposed to account for the variation in satellite association frequency which contains two elements: (i) The genotype determines the ratio of one chromosome type to another in the population of associated chromosomes (ii) All other environmental factors influence the absolute frequency of association without altering this basic ratio.

Vocal production and playback of altered song do not affect ZENK expression in black-capped chickadees (Poecile atricapillus)