A Flexible Path for Human and Robotic Space Exploration

A methodology to support strategic decisions in future human space exploration: From scenario definition to building blocks assessment

From outer space to Earth—The social significance of isolated and confined environment research in human space exploration

Human Exploration using Real-Time Robotic Operations (HERRO): A space exploration strategy for the 21st century

<p>In recent years, space agencies such as ESA, NASA, the Chinese space agency and even private sectors have been planning human deep space exploration programs to the Moon and Mars. This requires a very timely and thorough investigation to better understand the space weather conditions and effects for such deep space activities in order to further develop mitigation strategies against the associated radiation risks on humans in space.</p> <p>Radiation damage in deep space comes mainly from two sources, Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs) and Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs). As an omnipresent background, radiation induced by GCRs, which are modulated by solar activities, may increase the chance of long-term health consequences, such as onset of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, skin atrophy, eye cataract, leukemia, anemia, leucopenia and malfunctions of the central nervous system. On the other hand, intense solar energetic particles (SEPs) can be considered as mightily related to deterministic radiation effects which are of great concern for space exploration. Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) or sickness or poisoning or toxicity is induced after a whole-body exposure to high doses of radiation between at the Gy [J/kg] level. Such events, despite of being rather infrequent, could result in severe damage to humans and equipment and lead to potential failure of the entire mission and therefore should be detected and mitigated as immediately as possible.</p> <p>Under different shielding environment, the intensity and composition of the GCRs/SEPs may vary due to the interactions of primary particles (of different energies and charges) with the surrounding material and the generation of secondaries. Therefore, a precise quantification of the change of particle spectra under different shielding environment (e.g., within a spacecraft in deep space or at Martian surface or even subsurface which might be used for future habitat shielding) using a synergistic combination of measurements and particle-transport models is essential for assessing and predicting the radiation environment therein as well as its changes during different solar activities.</p> <p>Another major challenge in predicting the radiation risks for humans in space is the sudden and sporadic radiation induced by SEPs which can be very intense, dynamic and may vary drastically in time and location. Specifically speaking, the radiation and particle enhancement measured at (or predicted for) Earth’s vicinity may be completely different from of that detected elsewhere in the heliosphere as for a Mars mission, due to the different magnetic connection and distance of Mars (or the cruise spacecraft) from the acceleration and release region of SEPs near the Sun. We highlight the utmost importance of utilizing multi-spacecraft in-situ and remote sensing observations of the Sun and the heliosphere to better understand such dynamic events and their dynamic effects across the heliosphere in particular at locations where human explorations may take place.</p>

The US ‘vision for space exploration’ articulated at the beginning of 2004 encompasses a broad range of human and robotic space missions, including missions to the Moon, Mars and destinations beyond. It establishes clear goals and objectives, yet sets equally clear budgetary ‘boundaries’ by stating firm priorities, including ‘tough choices’ regarding current major NASA programs. The new vision establishes as policy the goals of pursuing commercial and international collaboration in realizing future space exploration missions. Also, the policy envisions that advances in human and robotic mission technologies will play a key role—both as enabling and as a major public benefit that will result from implementing that vision. In pursuing future international space exploration goals, the exploration of the Moon during the coming decades represents a particularly appealing objective. The Moon provides a unique venue for exploration and discovery—including the science of the Moon (e.g., geological studies), science from the Moon (e.g., astronomical observatories), and science on the Moon (including both basic research, such as biological laboratory science, and applied research and development, such as the use of the Moon as a test bed for later exploration). The Moon may also offer long-term opportunties for utilization—including Earth observing applications and commercial developments. During the coming decade, robotic lunar exploration missions will play a particularly important role, both in their own right and as precursors to later, more ambitious human and robotic exploration and development efforts. The following paper discusses some of the issues and opportunities that may arise in establishing plans for future robotic lunar exploration. Particular emphasis is placed on four specific elements of future robotic infrastructure: Earth–Moon in-space transportation systems; lunar orbiters; lunar descent and landing systems; and systems for long-range transport on the Moon.

At the heart of the issue of reliable and dependable systems and networks, this paper presents the conception of a Decisional Information System for Security (D.I.S.S.) dedicated to the Human Space Exploration Mission. The objective is to conceive a decisional information system for human long duration space flight (> 1000 days) which is realised in entire autonomy in the solar system. This article describes the importance of the epistemological and ontological context for designing an open, self‐learning and reliable system able for self‐adapt in dangerous and unforeseen situations. We present in link with our research, the limits of the empirical analytical paradigm and several paths of research lead by the nascent paradigm of enaction. The strong presumption is that the centralised models of security could not be sufficient today to respond and challenge the security of a technical system, which will support human exploration missions.

As an emerging interdiscipline, space life science, generated and developed with human space, especially manned space exploration,, covering very wide research fields. In the past more than half a century, many significant findings and achievements have been achieved in this field, which not only supports the missions of manned space exploration, but also provides service for the life on the earth. With the continuous development of Chinese manned space and deep space exploration activities, especially the startup of Chinese manned space station project, the next two decades will be the prime time for the development of Chinese space life science. To conduct space life science, obtain new knowledge and innovative technology and provide further service for human space exploration, national economic and social development basing on Chinese manned space station and return type scientific satellite experiment platform, which need us to study and thinking systematically from the strategic perspective of subject development. By reviewing the historical and current development of space life science at home and abroad, this essay analyzes and prospects the strategic needs, key scientific problems and development direction of Chinese space life science, in order to provide inspiration and reference for its development.

Future lunar missions will require innovative habitat systems to support crewed operations on the Moon’s surface for extended durations. To address these needs, a reconfigurable lunar habitat was designed, intended to facilitate extended human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit. This design incorporates state-of-the-art technologies, combining highly demonstrated solutions with emerging advancements to address the Moon’s unique environmental and operational challenges. The proposed habitat is designed to support critical functions such as life support, power generation, communication, extravehicular activities, and crew health maintenance - each necessary for enabling longer-duration missions that contribute to NASA’s vision for future planetary exploration. This design approach emphasizes reconfigurability, crew well-being, and operational efficiency. With a fully integrated design and a layout that adapts to multiple operational scenarios, the habitat minimizes reliance on additional infrastructure and launches. The reconfigurable interior layout maximizes usable volume, enhancing habitability within the constraints of a lunar habitat and supporting evolving mission goals and payload requirements. Upcoming developments include the design and construction of a full-scale, medium-fidelity mockup of the habitat concept, incorporating a fully reconfigurable interior to simulate various mission activities. Comprehensive “day-in-the-life” human factors testing will evaluate the habitat’s design, assessing its ability to support diverse lunar operations and enhance crew habitability. These efforts lay a foundation for future human exploration of the Moon and beyond.

Understanding the nature of the space environment is as important for physicians, astronauts, life scientists, and aeronautical engineers, as it is for planetary and physical scientists. Designing spacecraft, safe crew living quarters, personal protective systems, work procedures, and exploration systems has and will continue to benefit from robotic exploratory missions. Robotic missions inform aerospace engineers as to the function, design and performance of crewed systems for future exploration missions. The complexity of planetary human space missions will continue to increase in the future as we venture farther and for longer periods of time into our Solar System. Practitioners of space medicine must be prepared to use the knowledge gathered from robotic missions to identify challenges and hazards to address the health risks for future human expeditions and potential settlements beyond the confines of the biosphere. Future crews’ exposure to space hazards, notably radiation, and possibly to new ecosystems, require special and careful planning. The future of human space exploration is coupled with scientific curiosity based on robotic missions and also by the direction provided by the U.S. President’s space policy. Commercial aspirations for exploring and prospecting for resources of our Solar System are poorly defined and will require international agreements to be addressed by the United Nations. Astrobiology, planetary protection, and ethical considerations are also discussed. This chapter provides a short review of our Solar System, and discusses prospective destinations, intended to inform physicians, biomedical engineers, and mission planners interested in space medicine. Some of the mentioned destinations are in the planning stages by different space agencies, and by commercial entities. The fields of planetary sciences and space physics continue to make newer discoveries, which might not have been captured in this chapter. For a more in-depth scientific and technical review of our Solar System and the Universe, interested readers should consult appropriate scientific publications.

Long-duration human exploration beyond the low Earth orbit (LEO) mandates development of materials to minimize crew and equipment exposure to the interplanetary radiation environment. The potential for biological damage by the relatively low percentage of high-energy heavy ions in the galactic cosmic ray spectrum far outweigh that due to lighter particles because of their ionizing power and the quality of the resulting biological damage. To avoid paying a penalty due to additional weight, it would be beneficial to develop a multifunctional material as an integral part of a spacecraft structure to provide shielding effectiveness and structural integrity. This paper discusses the development of polyethylene fiber reinforced epoxy matrix structural composites that effectively satisfy both primary requirements.

This essay begins with a critique of the vision of human space exploration that is based on the "metaphorical projection" of the European voyages of discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries and the Western American frontier. By incorrectly using these historical analogs and imposing their associated symbols onto the efforts to develop and maintain human exploration of the solar system, the space proponents are narrowing their political and technical options that can be used to carry out their aspirations. Following this critique, the basis for a new perspective on human space exploration is presented. This new perspective, based on the idea of a human metamorphosis, stems from a change in consciousness brought about by embracing the transcendental nature of spaceflight and a more connective human relationship with the Earth. Following this, it is suggested that the cis-lunar region of space be used as a research and development area for human space operations, and that this region is a place to cultivate the cultural, spiritual, and technological evolution that will be necessary to explore and eventually settle the solar system.

NASA has completed a preliminary mission and systems study of nuclear electric propulsion (NEP) systems for “split‐sprint” human exploration and related robotic cargo missions to Mars. This paper describes the study, the mission architecture selected, the NEP system and technology development needs, proposed development schedules, and estimated development costs. Since current administration policy makers have delayed funding for key technology development activities that could make Mars exploration missions a reality in the near future, NASA will have time to evaluate various alternate mission options, and it appears prudent to ensure that Mars mission plans focus on astronaut and mission safety, while reducing costs to acceptable levels. The split‐sprint nuclear electric propulsion system offers trip times comparable to nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) systems, while providing mission abort opportunities that are not possible with “reference” mission architectures. Thus, NEP systems offer short transit times for the astronauts, reducing the exposure of the crew to intergalactic cosmic radiation. The high specific impulse of the NEP system, which leads to very low propellant requirements, results in significantly lower “initial mass in low earth orbit” (IMLEO). Launch vehicle packaging studies show that the NEP system can be launched, assembled, and deployed, with about one less 240‐metric‐ton heavy lift launch vehicle (HLLV) per mission opportunity ‐ a very large cost savings! Technology development cost of the nuclear reactor for an NEP system would be shared with the proposed nuclear surface power systems, since nuclear systems will be required to provide substantial electrical power on the surface of Mars. The NEP development project plan proposed includes evolutionary technology development for nuclear electric propulsion systems that expands upon SP‐100 (Space Power ‐ 100 kw) technology that has been developed for lunar and Mars surface nuclear power, and small NEP systems for interplanetary probes. System upgrades are expected to evolve that will result in even shorter trip times, improved payload capabilities, and enhanced safety and reliability. Non‐nuclear technology development for the NEP system is estimated to cost about $721 M (1993 $). Nuclear technology development costs are not included in the costs in this report, since these costs will be incurred in the nuclear surface power development program. NEP Phase A/B studies are estimated to cost about $154 M. Flight system hardware development (Phase C/D) is estimated to cost about $2.8 B, and fabrication of flight hardware is estimated to be about $7.8 B for four mission opportunities in 2009, 2011, 2014, and 2016.

With the hindsight of more than 40 years of human space exploration experience, public support for space is essential to sustaining government funding for space endeavors. Poll after poll shows that the public is generally supportive of space exploration, but that support is passive and shallow. Although space is integrated into many facets of daily life, the general public’s knowledge of space activities is not commensurate with the benefits derived from them. The public’s concept of the cost of space endeavors or the extent of taxpayer investment in space is generally erroneous. Space agencies, the aerospace industry, and space-related entities need to communicate better the contributions of space to society and the excitement of space exploration and discovery.In March 2001, a Working Group of the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) considered ways to promote public awareness of the benefits and excitement of space activities; its findings and recommendations are presented in this paper. Without significant improvements in public outreach coordination, the future of human spaceflight beyond the International Space Station (ISS) will be hard to sell to the legislators who must underwrite the major share of the initial costs of humanity’s sustained progression beyond low Earth orbit. The AIAA Working Group recognized that it will take time and effort to coordinate a long-term commitment to an international outreach and communication strategy. International discussions should begin without delay to enhance efforts to garner public support for human spaceflight activities aboard the ISS, and to map out a broad plan with national and international elements to educate the public and harness support for the potential of human spaceflight beyond the ISS.KeywordsSpace ActivitySpace ExplorationInternational Space StationSpace CommunityWorkforce DevelopmentThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

CONGRESS AND OTHER stakeholders remain dubious about President Barack Obama’s plan for human space exploration, even after he unveiled a slightly revised and more detailed proposal. The President laid out his plan in an April 15 speech that called on NASA to focus its efforts on developing new technology needed to carry humans into space rather than targeting a specific destination. This was the first time the President discussed his new plan for the agency’s human space exploration program since it was announced as part of the fiscal 2011 budget proposal released in February (C&EN, Feb. 15, page 16). “Fifty years after the creation of NASA, our goal is no longer just a destination to reach,” Obama said. “Our goal is the capacity for people to work and learn and operate and live safely beyond the Earth for extended periods of time, ultimately in ways that are more sustainable and even indefinite.” The President’s remarks ...

Human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit (LEO) will require a unique collection of advanced, innovative technologies and the precise execution of complex and challenging operational concepts. One tool we in the Analog Missions Project at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) utilize to validate exploration system architecture concepts and conduct technology demonstrations, while gaining a deeper understanding of system-wide technical and operational challenges, is our analog missions. Analog missions are multi-disciplinary activities that test multiple features of future spaceflight missions in an integrated fashion to gain a deeper understanding of system-level interactions and integrated operations. These missions frequently occur in remote and extreme environments that are representative in one or more ways to that of future spaceflight destinations. They allow us to test robotics, vehicle prototypes, habitats, communications systems, in-situ resource utilization, and human performance as it relates to these technologies. And they allow us to validate architectural concepts, conduct technology demonstrations, and gain a deeper understanding of system-wide technical and operational challenges needed to support crewed missions beyond LEO. As NASA develops a capability driven architecture for transporting crew to a variety of space environments, including the moon, near-Earth asteroids (NEA), Mars, and other destinations, it will use its analog missions to gather requirements and develop the technologies that are necessary to ensure successful human exploration beyond LEO. Currently, there are four analog mission platforms: Research and Technology Studies (RATS), NASA s Extreme Environment Mission Operations (NEEMO), In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), and International Space Station (ISS) Test bed for Analog Research (ISTAR).