Space Development and the Human Condition: What Will be Necessary?

During the summer of 2009, a flexible path scenario for human and robotic space exploration was developed that enables frequent, measured, and publicly notable human exploration of space beyond low-Earth orbit (LEO). The formulation of this scenario was in support of the Exploration Beyond LEO subcommittee of the Review of U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee that was commissioned by President Obama. Exploration mission sequences that allow humans to visit a wide number of inner solar system destinations were investigated. The scope of destinations included the Earth-Moon and Earth-Sun Lagrange points, near-Earth objects (NEOs), the Moon, and Mars and its moons. The missions examined assumed the use of Constellation Program elements along with existing launch vehicles and proposed augmentations. Additionally, robotic missions were envisioned as complements to human exploration through precursor missions, as crew emplaced scientific investigations, and as sample gathering assistants to the human crews. The focus of the flexible path approach was to gain ever-increasing operational experience through human exploration missions ranging from a few weeks to several years in duration, beginning in deep space beyond LEO and evolving to landings on the Moon and eventually Mars.

From outer space to Earth—The social significance of isolated and confined environment research in human space exploration

At the heart of the issue of reliable and dependable systems and networks, this paper presents the conception of a Decisional Information System for Security (D.I.S.S.) dedicated to the Human Space Exploration Mission. The objective is to conceive a decisional information system for human long duration space flight (> 1000 days) which is realised in entire autonomy in the solar system. This article describes the importance of the epistemological and ontological context for designing an open, self‐learning and reliable system able for self‐adapt in dangerous and unforeseen situations. We present in link with our research, the limits of the empirical analytical paradigm and several paths of research lead by the nascent paradigm of enaction. The strong presumption is that the centralised models of security could not be sufficient today to respond and challenge the security of a technical system, which will support human exploration missions.

American supporters of human space exploration, identified in this essay as space proponents, want the United States to pursue a policy of establishing human settlements on other worlds in the Solar System. Human space exploration is a matter of public policy because a substantial expenditure of public resources is necessary to achieve this goal. A new approach to this policy question can be realized by critically examining the fundamental assumptions and beliefs of the space proponents. The theory of myth-systems provides a means to examine these principles. This theoretical framework demonstrates that the space proponents lack insight into their beliefs, misinterpret political events associated with human spaceflight, and thus unintentionally narrow their perspective on how to achieve their goal.

As an emerging interdiscipline, space life science, generated and developed with human space, especially manned space exploration,, covering very wide research fields. In the past more than half a century, many significant findings and achievements have been achieved in this field, which not only supports the missions of manned space exploration, but also provides service for the life on the earth. With the continuous development of Chinese manned space and deep space exploration activities, especially the startup of Chinese manned space station project, the next two decades will be the prime time for the development of Chinese space life science. To conduct space life science, obtain new knowledge and innovative technology and provide further service for human space exploration, national economic and social development basing on Chinese manned space station and return type scientific satellite experiment platform, which need us to study and thinking systematically from the strategic perspective of subject development. By reviewing the historical and current development of space life science at home and abroad, this essay analyzes and prospects the strategic needs, key scientific problems and development direction of Chinese space life science, in order to provide inspiration and reference for its development.

A crewed mission to a near earth asteroid would yield both scientific and engineering advancements. Visiting one or several of these objects would not only validate technologies that could later be used to visit the Moon or Mars, but would also develop our scientific understanding of asteroids and the solar system. This study proposes an architecture that represents a paradigm shift in the way space exploration is conducted. By including the commercial space industry in this mission and encouraging competition, NASA can realize significant cost savings and schedule improvements. This architecture uses a commercial launch vehicle core stage, which can reach orbit if a rocket is launched with no payload, as the in space propulsion system for both outbound and inbound burns. Refueling the core stage with commercial launch systems separates the propellant from the mission-critical elements, and using multiple commercial partners shortens the mission life cycle time and increases mission reliability. Removing expensive and unnecessary systems and supplementing NASA hardware with existing commercial systems brings the program under the current human space exploration budget. Furthermore, this architecture is also extensible to other destinations of interest for human exploration.

<p>In recent years, space agencies such as ESA, NASA, the Chinese space agency and even private sectors have been planning human deep space exploration programs to the Moon and Mars. This requires a very timely and thorough investigation to better understand the space weather conditions and effects for such deep space activities in order to further develop mitigation strategies against the associated radiation risks on humans in space.</p> <p>Radiation damage in deep space comes mainly from two sources, Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs) and Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs). As an omnipresent background, radiation induced by GCRs, which are modulated by solar activities, may increase the chance of long-term health consequences, such as onset of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, skin atrophy, eye cataract, leukemia, anemia, leucopenia and malfunctions of the central nervous system. On the other hand, intense solar energetic particles (SEPs) can be considered as mightily related to deterministic radiation effects which are of great concern for space exploration. Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) or sickness or poisoning or toxicity is induced after a whole-body exposure to high doses of radiation between at the Gy [J/kg] level. Such events, despite of being rather infrequent, could result in severe damage to humans and equipment and lead to potential failure of the entire mission and therefore should be detected and mitigated as immediately as possible.</p> <p>Under different shielding environment, the intensity and composition of the GCRs/SEPs may vary due to the interactions of primary particles (of different energies and charges) with the surrounding material and the generation of secondaries. Therefore, a precise quantification of the change of particle spectra under different shielding environment (e.g., within a spacecraft in deep space or at Martian surface or even subsurface which might be used for future habitat shielding) using a synergistic combination of measurements and particle-transport models is essential for assessing and predicting the radiation environment therein as well as its changes during different solar activities.</p> <p>Another major challenge in predicting the radiation risks for humans in space is the sudden and sporadic radiation induced by SEPs which can be very intense, dynamic and may vary drastically in time and location. Specifically speaking, the radiation and particle enhancement measured at (or predicted for) Earth’s vicinity may be completely different from of that detected elsewhere in the heliosphere as for a Mars mission, due to the different magnetic connection and distance of Mars (or the cruise spacecraft) from the acceleration and release region of SEPs near the Sun. We highlight the utmost importance of utilizing multi-spacecraft in-situ and remote sensing observations of the Sun and the heliosphere to better understand such dynamic events and their dynamic effects across the heliosphere in particular at locations where human explorations may take place.</p>

The US ‘vision for space exploration’ articulated at the beginning of 2004 encompasses a broad range of human and robotic space missions, including missions to the Moon, Mars and destinations beyond. It establishes clear goals and objectives, yet sets equally clear budgetary ‘boundaries’ by stating firm priorities, including ‘tough choices’ regarding current major NASA programs. The new vision establishes as policy the goals of pursuing commercial and international collaboration in realizing future space exploration missions. Also, the policy envisions that advances in human and robotic mission technologies will play a key role—both as enabling and as a major public benefit that will result from implementing that vision. In pursuing future international space exploration goals, the exploration of the Moon during the coming decades represents a particularly appealing objective. The Moon provides a unique venue for exploration and discovery—including the science of the Moon (e.g., geological studies), science from the Moon (e.g., astronomical observatories), and science on the Moon (including both basic research, such as biological laboratory science, and applied research and development, such as the use of the Moon as a test bed for later exploration). The Moon may also offer long-term opportunties for utilization—including Earth observing applications and commercial developments. During the coming decade, robotic lunar exploration missions will play a particularly important role, both in their own right and as precursors to later, more ambitious human and robotic exploration and development efforts. The following paper discusses some of the issues and opportunities that may arise in establishing plans for future robotic lunar exploration. Particular emphasis is placed on four specific elements of future robotic infrastructure: Earth–Moon in-space transportation systems; lunar orbiters; lunar descent and landing systems; and systems for long-range transport on the Moon.

Understanding the nature of the space environment is as important for physicians, astronauts, life scientists, and aeronautical engineers, as it is for planetary and physical scientists. Designing spacecraft, safe crew living quarters, personal protective systems, work procedures, and exploration systems has and will continue to benefit from robotic exploratory missions. Robotic missions inform aerospace engineers as to the function, design and performance of crewed systems for future exploration missions. The complexity of planetary human space missions will continue to increase in the future as we venture farther and for longer periods of time into our Solar System. Practitioners of space medicine must be prepared to use the knowledge gathered from robotic missions to identify challenges and hazards to address the health risks for future human expeditions and potential settlements beyond the confines of the biosphere. Future crews’ exposure to space hazards, notably radiation, and possibly to new ecosystems, require special and careful planning. The future of human space exploration is coupled with scientific curiosity based on robotic missions and also by the direction provided by the U.S. President’s space policy. Commercial aspirations for exploring and prospecting for resources of our Solar System are poorly defined and will require international agreements to be addressed by the United Nations. Astrobiology, planetary protection, and ethical considerations are also discussed. This chapter provides a short review of our Solar System, and discusses prospective destinations, intended to inform physicians, biomedical engineers, and mission planners interested in space medicine. Some of the mentioned destinations are in the planning stages by different space agencies, and by commercial entities. The fields of planetary sciences and space physics continue to make newer discoveries, which might not have been captured in this chapter. For a more in-depth scientific and technical review of our Solar System and the Universe, interested readers should consult appropriate scientific publications.

With the hindsight of more than 40 years of human space exploration experience, public support for space is essential to sustaining government funding for space endeavors. Poll after poll shows that the public is generally supportive of space exploration, but that support is passive and shallow. Although space is integrated into many facets of daily life, the general public’s knowledge of space activities is not commensurate with the benefits derived from them. The public’s concept of the cost of space endeavors or the extent of taxpayer investment in space is generally erroneous. Space agencies, the aerospace industry, and space-related entities need to communicate better the contributions of space to society and the excitement of space exploration and discovery.In March 2001, a Working Group of the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) considered ways to promote public awareness of the benefits and excitement of space activities; its findings and recommendations are presented in this paper. Without significant improvements in public outreach coordination, the future of human spaceflight beyond the International Space Station (ISS) will be hard to sell to the legislators who must underwrite the major share of the initial costs of humanity’s sustained progression beyond low Earth orbit. The AIAA Working Group recognized that it will take time and effort to coordinate a long-term commitment to an international outreach and communication strategy. International discussions should begin without delay to enhance efforts to garner public support for human spaceflight activities aboard the ISS, and to map out a broad plan with national and international elements to educate the public and harness support for the potential of human spaceflight beyond the ISS.KeywordsSpace ActivitySpace ExplorationInternational Space StationSpace CommunityWorkforce DevelopmentThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

This paper will describe the results of the preliminary phase of a NASA design study for a facility to test high-power electric propulsion systems in space. The results of this design study are intended to provide a firm foundation for a subsequent detailed design and development activities leading to the deployment of a valuable space facility supporting the new vision of space exploration. The objectives for human and robotic exploration of space can be accomplished affordably, safely and effectively with high-power electric propulsion systems. But, as thruster power levels rise to the hundreds of kilowatts and up to megawatts, their testing will pose stringent and expensive demands on existing Earth-based vacuum facilities. These considerations and the access to near-Earth space provided by the International Space Station (ISS) have led to a renewed interest in space testing. The ISS could provide an excellent platform for a space-based test facility with the continuous vacuum conditions of the natural space environment and no chamber walls to modify the open boundary conditions of the propulsion system exhaust. The platform would be designed to accommodate the side-by-side testing of multiple types of electric thrusters currently under development and thus provide a strong basis for comparing their relative performance. The utility of testing on the station is further enhanced by the human presence, enabling close interaction with and modification of the test hardware in a true laboratory environment. These conditions facilitate rapid development and flight certification at potentially lower cost than with conventional Earth-bound facilities. As an added benefit, the propulsive effect of these tests could provide some drag compensation for the station, reducing the re-boost cost for the orbital facility. While it is expected that the ISS will not be capable of generating continuous levels of high power, the utilization of state-of-the-art energy storage media would be sufficient to achieve very high power levels over intervals short enough to be feasible and long enough to provide ample demonstration of steady-state operation. This paper will outline the results of the preliminary phase of the design study with emphasis on the requirements that will dictate the system design.

An experimental program for space solar power development compatible with human moon and mars exploration

Despite decades of efforts to reduce rocket launch costs, improvements are marginal. Launch cost to LEO for cargo is ∼$10,000 per kg of payload, and to higher orbit and beyond much greater. Human access to the ISS costs $20 million for a single passenger. Unless launch costs are greatly reduced, large scale commercial use and human exploration of the solar system will not occur. A new approach for ultra low cost access to space—Maglev Launch—magnetically accelerates levitated spacecraft to orbital speeds, 8 km/sec or more, in evacuated tunnels on the surface, using Maglev technology like that operating in Japan for high speed passenger transport. The cost of electric energy to reach orbital speed is less than $1 per kilogram of payload. Two Maglev launch systems are described, the Gen‐1System for unmanned cargo craft to orbit and Gen‐2, for large‐scale access of human to space. Magnetically levitated and propelled Gen‐1 cargo craft accelerate in a 100 kilometer long evacuated tunnel, entering the atmosphere at the tunnel exit, which is located in high altitude terrain (∼5000 meters) through an electrically powered “MHD Window” that prevents outside air from flowing into the tunnel. The Gen‐1 cargo craft then coasts upwards to space where a small rocket burn, ∼0.5 km/sec establishes, the final orbit. The Gen‐1 reference design launches a 40 ton, 2 meter diameter spacecraft with 35 tons of payload. At 12 launches per day, a single Gen‐1 facility could launch 150,000 tons annually. Using present costs for tunneling, superconductors, cryogenic equipment, materials, etc., the projected construction cost for the Gen‐1 facility is 20 billion dollars. Amortization cost, plus Spacecraft and O&M costs, total $43 per kg of payload. For polar orbit launches, sites exist in Alaska, Russia, and China. For equatorial orbit launches, sites exist in the Andes and Africa. With funding, the Gen‐1 system could operate by 2020 AD. The Gen‐2 system requires more advanced technology. Passenger spacecraft enter the atmosphere at 70,000 feet, where deceleration is acceptable. A levitated evacuated launch tube is used, with the levitation force generated by magnetic interaction between superconducting cables on the levitated launch tube and superconducting cables on the ground beneath. The Gen‐2 system could launch 100’s of thousands of passengers per year, and operate by 2030 AD. Maglev launch will enable large human scale exploration of space, thousands of gigawatts of space solar power satellites for beamed power to Earth, a robust defense against asteroids and comets, and many other applications not possible now.

Human exploration and development of space: using XML database Space Wide Web: Space Wide Web by adapters in distributed systems configuration from reusable components

Human Exploration using Real-Time Robotic Operations (HERRO): A space exploration strategy for the 21st century