Achieving Reliability, Safety & Security in SDV OS Architecture

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Several years ago some of the most prominent leaders in automotive industries cooperated to form a purely engineering group that had as its primary purpose developing a type of rigid-airship construction in which the public would have confidence. It was conceived that such an airship should be</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(1)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Fireproof</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(2)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Weatherproof</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(3)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Durable and permanent in structure</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(4)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Navigable in practically all kinds of weather</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(5)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Economical in the use of buoyant gas and ballast</div> </li> </ol> </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">To meet all of these requirements it was decided, after mature consideration, that a substantially all-metal construction was imperative. Development of the Metalclad airship has now reached a point where the general soundness of the design seems fully assured as</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph"> <ol class="list nostyle"> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(1)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The structural and aerodynamic efficiencies have been established by both analytical and experimental methods</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(2)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The technical problems involved in the construction have been mastered to a certainty hitherto unapproached in any new design</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(3)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The general design of an airship of demonstration size, 200,000 cu. ft. or one-tenth the size of the Shenandoah, has been completed</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(4)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Full-sized structural members of every part of the framework have been built and tested to destruction revealing that the minimum safety factor is double that of the Shenandoah. The longitudinal strength of the metal hull will be more than four times as great as that of the Shenandoah</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(5)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The problem of riveting the metal hull-plating has been solved through the perfection of an automatic riveting-machine</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(6)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The problem of making the metal hull gas-tight has been solved with surprising efficiency indicating an osmosis of about one-tenth that through gold-beaters skin and only one-hundredth that through rubberized fabric</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(7)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A suitable coating to prevent corrosion has been satisfactorily tested</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(8)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A source of supply of aluminum alloys of dependable quality is assured</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(9)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Shop facilities for fabrication are available in Detroit</div> </li> <li class="list-item"> <span class="li-label">(10)</span> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Skilled metal-workers familiar with aluminum and its alloys are at hand</div> </li> </ol> </div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">These results depend upon certain fundamental principles that are described in the paper. In effect, the design is an entirely new one, but adheres to the fundamental unalterable principles underlying all sound engineering-work.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The paper states that the Metalclad airship is the last step in the development of rigid airships and most certainly must be adopted if such a means of transportation is to be made available both for the arms of National Defense and for commercial purposes.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Appendices that include extracts from studies and texts arranged to illustrate the subject matter in the main paper and furnish food for discussion supplement the paper. This material is partially elementary in form as limitations of space preclude any attempt at completeness.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>Background</b>: The Indian automobile industry, including the auto component industry, is a significant part of the country’s economy and has experienced growth over the years. India is now the world’s 3<sup>rd</sup> largest passenger car market and the world’s second-largest two-wheeler market. Along with the boon, the bane of road accident fatalities is also a reality that needs urgent attention, as per a study titled ‘Estimation of Socio-Economic Loss due to Road Traffic Accidents in India’, the socio-economic loss due to road accidents is estimated to be around 0.55% to 1.35% of India’s GDP [<span class="xref">27</span>] Ministry of road transport and highways (MoRTH) accident data shows that the total number of fatalities on the road are the highest (in number terms) in the world. Though passenger car occupant fatalities have decreased over the years, the fatalities of vulnerable road users are showing an increasing trend. India has committed to reduce road fatalities by 50% by 2030. In this context, the automotive industry as well as MoRTH have been taking multiple initiatives including those related to vehicular and road engineering as well as educational measures for raising awareness in the field of road safety.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">With the intent of lowering road traffic accidents, the government and the ministry are constantly upgrading the requirements related to vehicles, infrastructures, and their implementation thereof. In this context, various future regulations are being deliberated. One such regulation in discussion pertains to requirements for the protection of the passenger car occupants in the event of a full-frontal collision with a focus on restraint systems (AIS 201). This will push manufacturers to design more sophisticated restraints that would help to reduce restraint-induced injuries. The draft version of the standard is available for public input/ discussion.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The key objective of the study documented herein is to consider various aspects of the draft standard (AIS 201) from the Indian perspective. This study investigates the research questions, enumerated below: <ol class="list nostyle"><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">1</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">What should be the appropriate test speed for the full-frontal test based on Indian accident data?</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">2</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">What is the suitable dummy configuration in terms of gender, seating position, and age to maximize occupant safety in full frontal accidents?</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">3</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Is the proposed ATD’s anthropometry (weight and height) suitable, based on the people involved in full frontal cases in India?</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">4</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">What are occupant injury attributes in full-frontal accidents?</div></li></ol></div><div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>Key findings/ expected research findings</b>: India has a very different mix of road traffic users and road traffic fatalities compared to that in Europe (Refer to <span class="xref">Table 1</span>). Further, issues like seat belt usage are of utmost concern. The demographic for India is also very different from those of developed economies. With India being a country with a rather young population, male and female dummies for driver and front passenger positions should be looked upon. This calls for India-specific safety regulations and research work on automotive test dummies.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>Practical implications</b>: The study can potentially provide a suggestion for alignment of the regulatory requirements with the actual situations, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the standard.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Vibration testing is an essential component of automotive product development, ensuring that components such as engines, transmissions, and electronic systems perform reliably under various operating conditions. The adoption of electronics in the automotive industry, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s, marked a shift in vibration testing approaches, moving from primarily low-frequency tests to methods that could address high-frequency vibrations as well. This evolution highlights the need for effective vibration fixture designs that can simulate real-world conditions, enabling manufacturers to detect potential weaknesses before products are integrated into vehicles. A key aspect of vibration testing is the identification of resonant frequencies within components. The coupled mass-spring-damper system, for example, can exhibit multiple resonances characterized by a Bode Diagram, where the Q factor technique is utilized to assess damping levels. Accurate vibration analysis can be achieved through various methodologies, including modal analysis and frequency response calculations, which help engineers understand how components will behave under different stimulus.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Furthermore, the use of advanced analytical tools, such as Finite Element Analysis (FEA) has become increasingly important in the automotive industry. These modern approaches allow for more precise and efficient vibration analysis, providing deeper insights into potential issues and enhancing overall product reliability.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">By adhering to industry standards such as International Organization for Standardization standard i.e. (ISO) 16750-3, Society of Automotive Engineers standard i.e. (SAE) J1455, and Military standard (MIL-STD)-810G, manufacturers can ensure their products meet rigorous safety and durability requirements, ultimately leading to reduced warranty claims and increased customer satisfaction.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Utilizing FEA allows for virtual prototyping, which reduces the reliance on physical prototypes traditionally used to test and refine designs. This approach not only shortens the design-to-production cycle but also allows for comprehensive testing and optimization, ultimately resulting in a more efficient development process and lower costs associated with prototype creation.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The design process for vibration fixtures involves a cyclical approach where simulations guide modifications. By continuously analysing and adjusting designs based on performance data, engineers can refine fixtures to meet specific criteria such as cost efficiency, structural performance, and overall functionality. This iterative nature of design helps in exploring multiple configurations and ensuring that the final product achieves all desired performance targets within the constraints of the given package space.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The increasing adoption of battery electric vehicles (BEVs), driven by the EU's target of no internal combustion engine vehicles from 2035 onwards, is driving significant changes in the automotive industry. However, the high degree of electrification and the unique low-speed acceleration behavior of BEVs therefore lead to new challenges. Measuring the drivetrain power and efficiency in a reproducible way and obtaining meaningful results is one of the challenges.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">To address this challenge, a novel test method is developed that offers a simple and preferably modification-free approach to drivetrain power and efficiency measurements for BEVs, allowing for efficient and reproducible testing. Different paths for determining the drivetrain power with varied measurement efforts are presented and evaluated. The test method is designed to provide reliable and accurate results for BEVs.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In this study, the effectiveness of the test method is shown by presenting the results of tests conducted with a VW e-up! on a Vehicle-in-the-Loop test bench and comparing them with data from previous studies. The results show that this approach offers a reproducible and meaningful way to measure power and efficiency in BEV’s drivetrains.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In addition to the discussion of the results, insights into the measurement of BEV’s drivetrains are given. An outlook on future challenges and how to overcome these with the help of the presented test bench as well as the knowledge gained from the study completes the paper.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Overall, the study offers insights into the development and testing of BEVs, providing a robust and reliable test method.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">High pressure EGR provides NO<sub>x</sub> emission reduction even at low exhaust temperatures. To maintain a safe EGR system operation over a required lifetime, the EGR cooler fouling must not exceed an allowable level, even if the engine is operated under worst-case conditions.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">A reliable fouling simulation model represents a valuable tool in the engine development process, which validates operating and calibration strategies regarding fouling tendency, helping to avoid fouling issues in a late development phase close to series production.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Long-chained hydrocarbons in the exhaust gas essentially impact the fouling layer formation. Therefore, a simulation model requires reliable input data especially regarding mass flow of long-chained hydrocarbons transported into the cooler.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">There is a huge number of different hydrocarbon species in the exhaust gas, but their individual concentration typically is very low, close to the detection limit of standard in-situ measurement equipment like GC-MS.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Therefore, a new measurement and analysis approach has been developed, where the exhaust gas is guided to a metal foam collector, in which HC`s are deposited. The probe is then analyzed in a suited thermogravimetrical system (TGA) in nitrogen atmosphere, temperature range 25°C to 650°C. Analyzing the TGA curve, HC concentration data for 6 different boiling temperature ranges are obtained, provided to an adapted 1-d fouling simulation model.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Using these data along with further input parameters like cooler geometry, gas temperature, pressure, flow, particle size distribution and coolant temperature, the simulation model has proven as a suitable tool to predict the fouling and identify engine settings for fouling reduction.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>I</b>N a discussion of the difficulties that are being overcome in converting automotive plants to the production of war equipment with virtually no new machine tools, Mr. Geschelin emphasizes the difference between the production requirements of an automobile engine and a modern airplane engine by pointing out that:</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The connecting rod of the Allison airplane engine requires 93 operations compared with 25 for the Cadillac passenger-car engine; the Allison crankshaft requires 80 operations, the Cadillac crankshaft 62; and the Allison cylinder block has 17 pieces compared with a single block for the Cadillac engine.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">After calling production know-how, “the major contribution of the automotive industry,” Mr. Geschelin draws attention to the fact that the automotive industry also is largely responsible for bringing American production machinery to its present high state of development. Without the automotive industry's demand for mass production and encouragement of invention, he contends, the machine-tool industry would never have reached its present stage of development and expansion. He goes on to show definitely how the industry has fostered advancement in machine tools, metallurgy, materials handling, surface finish, gear practice, heat-treatment, and shot blasting.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In the remainder of his paper the author explains - naming product, company, process, and machine - how automotive mass-production methods are influencing the production of such war equipment as airplane engines, military airplanes, Ordnance materiel, and military vehicles.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The objective of this study was to investigate which of the artificial aging cycles available in the automotive industry that causes major deactivation of three-way catalysts (TWCs) and can be used to obtain an aged catalyst similar to the road aged converter (160 000km).</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Standard bench cycle (SBC) aging with secondary air injection (SAI) covered aging with various mass flows - a flow from three cylinders into one catalyst system and a flow from three cylinders into two parallel connected catalysts. For rapid catalyst bench aging, secondary air injection is a very efficient tool to create exotherms. Furthermore, the effect on catalytic activity of SAI aging with poisons from oil and fuel dopants (P, Ca, Zn) was investigated.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The catalysts were thoroughly characterized in light-off and oxygen storage capacity measurements, emission conversion as a function of lambda and load variation was determined. These catalysts were then compared to three-way catalysts aged on an engine bench comparing two fuel-cut (FC) strategies, i.e. fuel-cut retardation (FCR) and fuel-cut acceleration (FCA) [<span class="xref">1</span>].</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">For 40-hour aged samples, SAI aged had the highest total deactivation of the catalytic system. The fuel-cut aging also showed significant deactivation but not to the same extent as the SAI aging cycle. This result can be explained by the different pattern of exotherms and the magnitude of the temperature excursions. The total temperature rise in fuel-cut aging cycles was lower than for SAI aged and which resulted in less sintering of the catalytic washcoat. For the fuel-cut ageing systems the exotherms were growing with the ageing time. This was verified by resulting light-off and oxygen storage capacity (OSC) results.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The car manufacturing process benefits from a competition between different materials that have to fulfil such demands as lightweight, comfort and safety. For ecological and economical reasons low vehicle weights minimise the energy consumption necessary for transportation.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">High strength steels enable to lower body weight by reducing sheet thickness and increase car safety by excellent crash behaviour. A very important contribution to vehicle safety and value maintenance during the whole life cycle is the use of galvanised steel sheets to prevent corrosion and premature failure of crash relevant body components.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Up to date the high standards in corrosion protection and appearance of the exposed car body in the automotive industry are verified by extensive surface coating processes, applied to the body in white by batch processes. Continuous coil coating of galvanised sheet steel is an extremely efficient alternative to the currently used surface finishing processes. The range of possible coil-coating systems expands from spot weldable thin film coatings over EDP-replacements to complete body paints.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Thin film precoated, galvanised steel sheets are comparably or easier to process in terms of formability and weldability as well as adhesive joining than their uncoated counterparts. Furthermore they yield better application properties like enhanced corrosion protection, especially in cavities. This results in a possible elimination of secondary corrosion protection measures and leaner production processes. Thus, by avoiding, or shifting environmentally sensitive processes to the steel supplier it is possible to slim down the production efforts for high quality automotive vehicles.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Precoated steel sheets offer a high potential to optimise car production in terms of environmental aspects and economical benefits.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">In recent years the automotive industry has been using an increasing number of high powered engines with fewer cylinders, with the goal to reduce weight and fuel consumption and hence to achieve lower CO2 emissions. In the following paper, an overview about the currently existing methods and products within the exhaust development is given which follow automotive lightweight trend.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Continuous innovations in new materials, structural design and manufacturing process as well as mastering the integration of the components and modules within the system with a thorough understanding and optimization of the system behavior is enabling the reduction of weight in exhaust system.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Another possibility to reduce the weight is the use of additional components such as valves. In the following, a discussion about the different types of valves is presented. These valves can be implemented within the exhaust system in order to bring a constraint in the system and consequently additional acoustic damping.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Due to engine downsizing, many premium vehicles lost their class-representing sound signature. An active system can be used in order to enhance the sound according to the customer demands. In addition to that, an active system can help reducing muffler volume.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Over the past few decades, there has been a notable increase in stakeholder’s attention on Earth's climate. The automotive industry, being a major contributor to this phenomenon, has been endeavoring to mitigate its impact through various measures. These efforts include reducing emissions in existing internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles and promoting electric vehicles (EVs) as a feasible alternative for consumers. Despite these initiatives, there remains a persistent challenge in improving the fuel economy and driving range of vehicles.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">India, located along the Tropic of Cancer, experiences both tropical and subtropical climates. As a result, a substantial portion of the total heat absorbed is from solar radiation. The higher heat load necessitates extensive use of air conditioning (AC) systems, which significantly contributes to the overall power consumption of vehicles. Various measures are being implemented to mitigate this heat load and enhance the efficiency of AC operations. This study aims to investigate the properties of different types of photochromatic glass and their effects on cabin heat load. Various proposals involving solar-coated glass, including absorptive and reflective types as well as combinations of these types are examined. Digital simulations are conducted to identify the most suitable alternatives for glass and their combinations.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">In this study, a combination of the Lattice-Boltzmann (LBM) based Power FLOW solver and the Finite Element based solver is utilized to simulate long transient soak and cool down processes. Furthermore, human thermal physiology is incorporated into the model to account for subjective evaluations of the in-cabin thermal environment. The Berkeley Comfort Model library, available in software, is employed for this purpose. This model addresses vasodilation and vasoconstriction effects based on external ambient conditions, as well as the influence of clothing and passenger metabolic rate. Digital simulations indicate that solar-coated reflecting-type glasses exhibit promising results.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The mentioned glass is installed in vehicles, and various trials are conducted under different conditions, including highway cycles, city cycles, and range trials, in both moderate and severe ambient conditions. Temperatures inside the cabin, at the grill level, and at most of touch points including glass surface are recorded for trials. The rate of rise of temperature during soaking reduced by ~15-18 % at cabin level and by ~32-35 % on touchpoints. In the vehicle-level test results, it is observed that touch point temperatures decrease by ~11-12°C, and air conditioning power consumption reduced by ~9-13%.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">As the automotive industry transitions toward software-defined vehicles and highly connected ecosystems, cybersecurity is becoming a foundational design requirement. A challenge arises with the advent of quantum computing, which threatens the security of widely deployed cryptographic standards such as RSA and ECC. This paper addresses the need for quantum-resilient security architectures in the automotive domain by introducing a combined approach that leverages Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and crypto-agility. Unlike conventional static cryptographic systems, our approach enables seamless integration and substitution of cryptographic algorithms as standards evolve.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Central to this work is the role of Hardware Security Modules (HSMs), which provide secure, tamper-resistant environments for cryptographic operations within vehicles. We present how HSMs can evolve into crypto-agile, quantum-safe platforms capable of supporting both hybrid (RSA/ECC + PQC) and fully post-quantum deployments—ensuring secure transitions without requiring hardware replacement. The novelty of this work lies in the design and validation of a first-of-its-kind operational prototype that supports current cryptographic standards (RSA/ECC) and is engineered for plug-and-play migration to PQC.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Our architecture ensures long-term security while minimizing operational disruption and costs. Using a systematic architectural methodology, we integrated both software- and hardware-based HSMs and evaluated their performance under hybrid cryptographic conditions. Key performance metrics such as latency, key negotiation time, and re-keying efficiency demonstrate that crypto agility can be achieved with minimal overhead, confirming its feasibility for real-world deployment.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">There is an urgent need to adopt quantum-safe and agile security practices today, as vehicles manufactured now will remain in service long after quantum computers become practical. By embracing crypto-agile designs, automakers can mitigate long-term risks and ensure resilience against future cryptographic threats. This paper provides both a technical roadmap and a working prototype demonstration to guide the automotive industry toward a secure, quantum-resilient future.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Aluminum alloy wheels are being widely used in the automotive industry since the last decade due to its superior styling and performance. Alloy wheel rim is one of the critical components and plays an important role in a frontal crash scenario. The wheel rim failure prediction in safety simulation is essential to ensure robust safety performance. Determining failure characteristics of an alloy wheel poses many difficulties considering its brittle nature, porosity and inhomogeneity in material properties across different regions of wheel rim due to mold design, cooling rate and other process parameters of the low-pressure die casting process.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper describes the modelling and simulation methodology developed to predict accurate wheel behavior. The methodology addresses two distinct areas of challenges such as alloy wheel rim failure prediction and associated tire blow out.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Alloy wheel rim material is characterized considering the inhomogeneity of material properties at different regions such as the rim, spokes and hub. The material model is developed, considering strain rate sensitivity, anisotropy due to the state of loading, ductile normal and shear fracture aspects. Scatter function is developed to simulate material property variations.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Radial tire characterization is carried out with detailed modelling of constituents such as rubber, steel beads, body plies and steel belts. Various physical tests and digital correlation studies are carried out at coupon and tire assembly level to represent the stiffness and deformation of the tire accurately. A novel approach was developed using sensors in digital models to detect the alloy wheel rim failure in real-time. This triggers rapid air leakage in the tire to simulate the blowout scenario during the crash event. The methodology has been validated at the subsystem and full vehicle level by carrying out multiple physical tests. This approach can be used for digital development and validation of alloy wheel rim design to ensure robust crash safety performance.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Environmental and financial factors are leading developments in the automotive industry and friction materials are no exception. Different organizations around the globe are increasing their attention on fine dust emissions. End users are more and more focused on comfort and cost due to global economic conditions.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">Two of these factors are directly related to each other: comfort and fine dust. They are the result of tribologic mechanisms resulting from pad and disc wear. These mechanisms linked to friction performance are the consequence of the interaction between friction material surface and disc surface. This interaction forms the third body layer and extensive studies have been carried out on this.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">This paper describes a detailed characterization of a new group of developed fibres. This new family of fibres has been specially engineered to offer an enhanced friction material surface reinforcement due to the specially designed aspect ratio. It has also been designed to maintain the most stable third body layer development to keep boosting friction level. Disc wear can be reduced thanks to its special chemical composition. The paper offers an explanation of the role of fibres in friction and it presents a proposal for a functioning mechanism in friction materials. Friction efficiency, wear and noise have been tested in a NAO copper-free formulation.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">The paper demonstrates how - by using these new fibres - it is possible to increase the friction level without affecting wear and it explains the mechanism behind this This offers an alternative to enhance friction performance or to reduce wear and dust emissions. This study shows how these fibres can improve wear (dust emissions) and noise as a cost effective alternative to current commercial products. The paper addresses three industrial challenges: wear, comfort and cost.</div></div>

<div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>W</b>E are in a new era of production that has been made possible by the broader vision of the production engineer, who is now an established factor in industry because of the demand for reduced production costs. The two factors over which he has control are labor and machinery. Labor cost is of diminishing significance as machinery takes over an increasing proportion of the responsibility for performance.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">To the two production principles of the division of labor and the transfer of skill to machinery is added a third principle deduced from facts observed in modern production practice. This principle is integrated production, the combining of work units, which are the smallest possible divisions into which operations are broken down by the time-study man, so that a number of identical or similar operations are performed simultaneously by multiple tools, with the maximum efficiency and economy for each tool or each work unit.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">This calls for increasingly greater refinement, from multiple tooling to provision for performing at one time operations governed by differing conditions. It can be carried to any extent justified by resulting economy. The point at which economy ceases to increase is determined by calculating carrying charges on the equipment against the operating cost of production. On greater quantities, as refinement is carried to greater limits, the savings in each case become less; the economy curve flattens out considerably long before “mass production” is reached.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Integrated production also combines the division of labor, the transfer of intelligence to machines, and the simultaneous performance of work units in a way to comprise a complete process or method performed in the shortest possible time. This results in smaller inventories of raw materials and materials in process, greater flexibility in the manufacturing process, quicker turnover from raw material to finished product, shorter financing periods, less money required and less tied up in forms subject to loss. Such savings, on a National scale and in the volume represented by the automotive industry, must contribute to the present favorable financial situation. Thus the production engineer is an important factor in such an ultimate phenomenon as the National prosperity of the Country.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">In the discussion one member tells how “simultation” with multiple-head machines made possible in 6 years a reduction of incandescent-lamp factories from 10 to 3 and of direct-labor operatives from 4500 to 1500 with a simultaneous increase in production of 62.5 per cent. Other points brought out are that economical production can be obtained in a period of reduced schedule by keeping all the machines in a group running but reducing their speed and reducing the number of operators; that cost can be reduced by putting money into machinery and reducing the labor-cost; that there is economy in setting the equipment for a production a little greater than the planned quantity; and that there is a critical point at which the cost per piece becomes greater with the simple machine than with the more refined and more expensive machine and at which a change in method should be made.</div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Electrification of public transport in cities puts lots of stress onto the vehicle's traction batteries and the power grid during charging. The authors present a self-learning operating strategy to improve the battery life and reduce stress on the power grid by lengthening charging operations as long as possible and avoiding extreme states of charge. During regular service operation, the operating strategy observes the vehicle state and energy flows inside of the vehicle and between vehicle and charging infrastructure. Based on these observations, the operating strategy plans a guidance state of charge trajectory for the trip and dispatches recommendations for charging and discharging the traction battery to the vehicle's ECU. Additionally, the operating strategy ensures reliable service trips by checking if the current state of charge matches the estimated energy consumption for a fixed range laying ahead. The operating strategy can detect and mitigate a situation in which the vehicle may break down during the current service trip early. In such a case, the operating strategy recommends measures which reduce the energy consumption while compromising passenger comfort as little as possible.</div></div>