Challenges of corporate security in the 21st century

Facing Global Environmental Change

The Challenge of Energy Security in the 21st Century: Trends of Significance seeks to inform all those concerned about energy security, whether national, regional or international bodies, of certain factors, which must be taken into consideration in developing their energy security policies and pursuing their respective objectives. Towards that end, this book reveals certain significant trends of importance to the major energy-producing and energy-consuming regions. Through its unique analysis, it sheds light on how such trends will affect the energy security policies of all the producers and consumers of energy, large and small, in one form or another, in the foreseeable future.

The global food and water security scenario in the twenty-first century will be an extraordinarily complex one. The population of the world will continue to balloon and reach 9.7 billion by 2050 and nearly 11-12 billion by 2100 [1]. In addition, global daily average calorie consumption is expected to rise from 2789 kcal/person/day in the year 2000 to 3130 kcal/person/day by the year 2050 [2]. These consumption figures may rise even higher if traditionally low meat consuming nations start increasing meat consumption enabled by economic growth. Food habits of people are diversifying considerably (e.g., rice, wheat, or maize only to a mix of rice, wheat, maize, pulses, fruits, and vegetables). At the same time, about 30 to 50% of the food produced globally is wasted [3]. Added to all these already daunting needs are the food security challenges from the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine conflict, and related supply-chain disruptions. COVID-19 lockdowns and wars are heavily impacting food production and trade mechanisms for all leading cropland countries. Additionally, global food and water security challenges are tightly intertwined. In a changing climate, the quantity and quality of surface and ground water are decreasing. Demands for agricultural and alternative uses (e.g., industrial, ecological) of water are simultaneously increasing. Adding to this complexity, urban migration and climate change related precipitation extremes necessitate new infrastructure to maintain water availability for new cropland. Thus, 30m (field scale where 1 pixel = 0.09 hectares) cropland products, including their intensity and irrigation status, are needed to monitor change and aid decision-making for issues of global food and water security. Thereby, ensuring food and water security for ~9.7 billion people by the year 2050 and ~11 billion people by the year 2100 sustainably will require a paradigm shift on how our land and water are used for food production, referred to as the evergreen revolution, where food security is sustained and assured in the years ahead without significant disruption [4]. Recent research [5] has indicated that the global agricultural land and water in the 21st century will be in a constant state of flux [6] requiring us to understand, model, map, and monitor these changes over space and time rapidly, routinely, and accurately year after year. This challenge invariably calls for very comprehensive global food security-support analysis data (GFSAD) products at fine spatial resolution representing field-scale (30m or better) routinely and accurately covering the entire Earth.

Abstract:The essay analyses the role of NATO in the post-Cold War period by conducting a comparison of the cases of NATO's operations in Kosovo and Libya. The article reveals the enhanced weight of the Alliance member states and the European countries' active role in protecting their regional interests and also show how the state interests of the USA and Russia played a significant role in the two cases. This analysis of the behavioral patterns of the former Cold War adversaries could provide a useful interpretation and perhaps an explanation of the current events in Ukraine. The pursuit of power continues to dominate the international relations arena as the confrontation between the USA and Russia is far from over.Keywords: European security, power politics, geopolitical influence, national interest.IntroductionEuropean security has a rich history of violent and destructive conflicts. It has gone through countless state-to-state wars, two World Wars, the ideological confrontation of the two superpowers during the Cold War period, and the new threats of terrorism and ethnic violence in the modem era. In the twenty-first century, Europeans face a number of new security challenges, such as regional conflicts and genocide, terrorism, economic, technological and energy issues, all of which affect European security.With the end of the Cold War, NATO experienced a major transformation. The Alliance's decision-makers acknowledged that, with the disappearance of the Soviet Union, new threats had emerged. It was essential for European security that NATO should develop a strategy for tackling future security threats. This strategy engaged NATO in numerous assignments that would ensure the protection of western-projected democracy.In other words, NATO remains the main factor for European and regional security. The Alliance's recent missions and expansion could lead the organization even to a global role in the future. NATO stands as a pillar of European security and defends western values and interests.As international security is the most important global issue there are several political theories that emphasize the importance of providing better comprehension. The understanding of global security matters has been best explained by the international relations theory of realism.1 According to this theory, which has long dominated the study of international relations:Despite the end of the cold war, the basic structure of the international system remains largely unchanged. States are still the key actors in world politics, and they continue to operate in an anarchic system.2Its explanations of security competition among great powers remain applicable and provide a logical explanation to the events in the international arena nowadays. The traditional security focus on nation-states and power remain central for international relations regardless of all the changes in the global order in the last 60 years.3 Despite being strongly criticized after the end of the Cold War, realism should not be underestimated or neglected for international relations. Realism can offer a lot to political analysts because the major powers will continue to compete for supremacy and wars will continue to occur.This essay analyzes the role of NATO in the post-Cold War period and the importance of how powerful states' interests are concerned, mainly the USA and Russia. Within this framework, the cases of the Kosovo crisis and the Libya uprising will be compared. European security was threatened in similar ways during these two conflicts. Although violations of human rights and crimes against humanity were the official reasons for the military interventions of NATO, the present article will also show how these conflicts affected the interests of the major NATO members and of Russia.It will be argued that state interests and competition between the major powers in the global arena remained essential and that the USA and Russia took similar approaches to resolve the European security crisis without disregarding their national interests. …

Security concerns facing the United States today are broader and more complex than at any time in our history. They range from concerns arising from threats to systems that allow society to control intergroup and interpersonal conflict to more recently recognized concerns associated with threats to social and economic systems, and threats to the natural/environmental systems on upon which society depends. Each major type of threat represents a form of “fat-tailed risk,” where extreme consequences are far more likely than expected but possess significant uncertainty regarding their severity and timing. Each type of threat shares the common characteristic that some elements are non-negotiable because they contain requirements that society must address to avoid or suffer irreparable consequences. Based on these assessments, we discuss the implications of societal threats on the development of global institutions, cooperation, social justice and human rights.

In an expeditiously changing world, security challenges have become more intricate, multifaceted and complex. The 21st century is an epoch of strategic competition and multisided relations. The influence and rate of occurrence of hybrid security threats are constantly rising and deepening. World is in era of transition, characterized by creating new dynamics by emerging players along with significant shift of geopolitical and economic power, and currently, global attention is drawn to the Russian aggression against Ukraine, which is the consequent catalyst for the EU states, obligating them to take more responsibility and improve security and defence. Russia does not use force only to dominate on Ukraine, but this war aims to reverse and strike down western dominance - it is a big threat-economically, militarily, and politically. In an international competition, other powers are challenging the European countries’ ability to protect their interests and values that was the motivation for the idea of collective security building called "strategic sovereignty". For this reason, both defence and security fields are essentially important for the European Union. The EU leaders have long been trying to improve common defence policy - the European Union External Action Service in 2011, and later in 2016, the EU Commission president Jean-Claude Juncker called for a common defence fund, a “European headquarters.“ In March 2022, the EU council approved the Strategic Compass. The Compass gives the European Union an ambitious plan of action for strengthening the EU's security and defence policy by 2030 (EU, 2022. French President Emmanuel Macron urged Europe to invest in its own collective security framework in the face of Russian military moves on the bloc’s doorstep - "Europe needs to finally build its own collective security framework on our continent." We argue about the prospects of collective security and the fact that it may now be time for the EU member States to take the necessary decisions.

This book examines and assesses the main security factors influencing Euro-Mediterranean relations at the start of the twenty-first century. Developing a theoretical framework based on the security complex, this book provides an empirical analysis of security challenges in the Euro-Mediterranean area that distinguishes between short, medium and long-term threats and highlights the political, military, economic, societal and environmental issues that are already serving as a source of instability in the region. Including analysis of the 2011 Arab Spring, the author examines the consequences and looks to the future of security in the Euro-Mediterranean region. Acknowledging the strategic significance of this region between Europe and the Middle East, the book identifies the main stakeholders within today’s debate on the future of Euro-Mediterranean relations and focuses on their main security interests in this region. It features a policy analysis of the main actors in the Mediterranean, including NATO, the United States, and the European Union and addresses issues including illegal migration, terrorism, religious intolerance and the lack of human rights Security Challenges in the Euro-Med Area in the 21st Century be of interest to students and scholars of European Politics, Security Studies and International Relations.

In recent decades, we have increasingly witnessed frequent climate changes.Climate change is one of the significant problems facing modern society, negatively affecting the environment, economy, infrastructure, and the health and safety of people.However, the effects of climate change during the 21st century have endangered both transport and telecommunications infrastructure.Research into climate change presents one of the most significant challenges facing the Planet in the 21st century.Considering that most social communities have rarely experienced protection from the numerous effects of natural and technological disasters, such com-plexity has emphasised the need for more detailed research.Namely, although climate change is one of the biggest global challenges, the world has long faced many issues it brings, and some research indicates that its impact will become increasingly frequent.This paper primarily highlights the complexity of this issue.One of the paper's goals is to realistically assess the situation and explore the potential for improving the activities of numerous institutions, experts, and scientists.The first chapter defines the concept of climate change and its classification, while the second chapter defines the concept of critical infrastructure and the problems that may arise.The third part of the paper will present the importance of ensuring the sustainability of critical infrastruc-ture and the measures to address these issues.Climate change is our reality.We deal with the consequences, not the cause.

Over the last two decades, the United Nations, the African Union and Regional Economic Communities have conducted various stabilisation interventions to establish secure environments during crises and advance stabilisation activities in different parts of Africa. However, while these organisations and other actors work to resolve crises, the progress made in addressing existing conflicts that threaten overall security is also at risk due to the impact of climate change in various regions of the continent. This has led to significant challenges for vulnerable local communities, particularly in the Sahel and Lake Chad Basin, as they face the effects of climate change –,such as floods, droughts and land degradation. This article explores the understanding and implementation of stabilisation and Climate, Peace and Security (CPS) across Africa. We find that there is a need to rethink how we tackle challenges such as climate, peace and security in African-led stabilisation contexts. We argue that existing models are inadequate for dealing with emerging challenges in stabilisation contexts, and provide fresh thinking on addressing African peace and security challenges from a holistic perspective. We propose a conceptual framework that integrates the rationale of stabilisation and CPS to address the emerging 21st-century CPS challenges in Africa. This proposal aims to enhance our understanding of how stakeholders can stabilise situations in the presence of climate change challenges, thereby better equipping communities and stakeholders to manage risks.

Biological warfare (BW) refers to the deliberate use of pathogenic microorganisms, toxins, or poisons to cause disease, incapacitation, or death in humans, animals, or crops. Unlike conventional weapons, biological agents can reproduce, spread invisibly, and produce delayed effects, making them particularly difficult to detect, control, and mitigate. Historically, BW has evolved from primitive methods - such as contaminating water supplies, using infected corpses, or poisoning livestock - to highly sophisticated threats amplified by modern biotechnology, synthetic biology, and gene-editing tools like CRISPR-Cas9. These technological advances, while enabling significant progress in medicine, agriculture, and industrial applications, also carry the potential for weaponization, creating complex ethical, regulatory, and security challenges. A central issue in BW is the dual-use nature of biological research, where the same scientific knowledge can serve both beneficial and harmful purposes. Research aimed at improving public health, developing vaccines, or enhancing agricultural productivity can also be misapplied to engineer pathogens with increased virulence, transmissibility, or resistance. This dual-use dilemma underscores the critical role of scientists, who act as creators, whistleblowers, and ethical guides, influencing not only the development of BW technologies but also their prevention. This paper explores the historical evolution of BW from ancient to modern times, examines contemporary threats including biohacking, gain-of-function research, and synthetic biology, and assesses future risks posed by emerging technologies and global interconnectedness. It highlights the ethical responsibility of scientists to conduct research transparently, adhere to rigorous safety standards, and participate in policy and governance frameworks. International treaties such as the 1925 Geneva Protocol and the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention provide legal foundations for BW prevention; however, enforcement gaps, clandestine programs, and rapid technological developments necessitate stronger global cooperation, biosecurity measures, and ethical oversight. In conclusion, BW represents a persistent and evolving threat in the 21st century. Ensuring that scientific advances are guided by ethical responsibility, robust biosecurity, and international collaboration is essential to prevent the misuse of biology for destructive purposes while enabling innovations that benefit humanity. The active engagement of scientists, policymakers, and global institutions is crucial to balancing scientific progress with security and public welfare. . KEYWORDS :Biological warfare, Dual-use research, Gene editing, Biosecurity, bioterrorism, Biological weapons convention

The article assesses the nature of missile competition between India and Pakistan and how it impacts deterrence and strategic stability in South Asia. It also analyses how their respective ballistic and cruise missile programmes developed. Taking the action-reaction model of arms racing, it concludes that there is indeed such a dynamic at play between the two countries. The missiles competition is very much linked to the nuclear competition as well. India’s Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) system also factors into the competitions, whereby Pakistan was forced to develop missiles that could saturate and defeat it. The missile and nuclear competition has an overall negative impact on deterrence and strategic stability in South Asia. Pakistan’s biggest security challenge is to achieve security and deterrence against a hostile India without falling into the trap of an economically ruinous arms race. 

The article discusses the idea of comprehensive national defence from a wide historical and geographical perspective. Countries facing different security challenges have used the concept of involving the entire society in state defence. From a historical perspective, ‘total defence’, with an emphasis on military components, was used primarily by non-aligned states during the Cold War; the breakdown of the Soviet Union reduced the importance of ‘total defence’; however, the emergence of hybrid threats in the 21st century has contributed to the rebirth of the concept in the form of ‘comprehensive national defence’, for application in circumstances wherein potential adversaries use military and non-military means in an integrated manner.

Section I: Small State Security Revisited: History, Concepts, Theory 1. Setting the Scene: Small States and International Security, Anders Wivel, Alyson JK Bailes and Clive Archer, 2. Small states, survival and strategy, Alyson Bailes, Jean-Marc Rickli and Baldur Thorhallsson, 3. Economic Security and Size, Richard Griffiths, 4. Societal Security and Small States, Alyson JK Bailes, 5. Small States and Environmental Security, Audur H. Ingolfsdottir, Section II: Small State Security in Europe, 6. The Nordic States, Clive Archer, 7. Security Concerns of the Baltic States in the 21st Century, Mindaugas Jurkynas, 8. Security Challenges in the Western Balkans: Building soft security after conflict, Visnja Samardzija, 9. Georgia and Moldova: Caught in the Outskirts of Europe? Maria Ruxandra Lupu Dinesen and Anders Wivel, 10. The Security of the European Micro-states, Archie W. Simpson, Section III: Comparative Insights 11. Botswana as a Small Developmental State, Ian Taylor, 12. Small State Security in Asia: Political and Temporal Constructions of Vulnerability, Alan Chong Chia Siong, 13. What Caribbean post-2015: Developmental and/or Fragile? Old versus New Security? Timothy Shaw 14. The Security Concerns of Designed Spaces: Size Matters, Godfrey Baldacchino

Sustainable agriculture has emerged as a critical paradigm for addressing the dual challenges of food security and environmental sustainability in the 21st Century. This study provides an empirical assessment of the adoption, drivers, barriers, and impacts of sustainable agricultural practices among Indian farmers. Using a mixed-methods research approach, the study evaluates key sustainable practices, examines their socio-economic and environmental benefits, and offers policy recommendations to enhance their adoption. Descriptive statistics, linear regression, t-tests, One-way ANOVA, and Chi-square tests have been applied to analyse primary data sourced from 400 farmers and 20 key stakeholders. The findings underscore the significance of context-specific interventions, capacity building, and stakeholder collaboration for advancing sustainable agriculture in India. The study recommends an urgent need for integrated policy frameworks and community-driven initiatives to scale up sustainable agricultural practices for a resilient and secure food system

Bangladesh is considered as one of the most suitable riverine country endowed with the rich inland and marine fisheries resources with enormous aquaculture potential. The suitable geographical location of Bangladesh along with its huge number of aquatic species offer excellent opportunities for the effective utilization and management of fisheries resources. Fisheries sector in Bangladesh represents as one of the most productive and dynamic sectors in the country. The country’s fisheries sector plays a significant role in food security, employment, and foreign exchange earnings in the economy. The sector contributes 3.65% to the national GDP and 23.81% to the total agricultural GDP. Fish and fishery products are the country's second largest export commodity contributing 1.97 percent of its exchange earnings in 2015–2016. From the year 2000 to 2016, aquaculture production increased from 712,640 to 2,060,408 mt, which was much higher than wild capture production of 1.023 million mt in 2016. There has also been a recent increase in the value of fishery exports, with more than US $34.08 billion in 2010 rising to more than US $46.60 billion in 2015. However, fisheries production is well below production targets despite the large gains seen in the aquaculture sector. However, the fisheries sector in the 21st century is facing the challenges of food security for the increasing population, habitat degradation, urbanization, and industrial development. Development of responsible fisheries management and optimal use of water bodies can address those challenges. Since fishery is a productive growth sector in Bangladesh, it has high potential to contribute in the socioeconomic development of the country. In this paper, we also make an attempt to examine the current legal status of Bangladesh fisheries and constraints in the implementation of fisheries laws. It is identified that twelve fisheries regulations are executed for the regulation and management of the fisheries resources in Bangladesh. Among these laws, a few are historically important for the regulating and managing of fisheries. These laws are implemented with some amendments for the development of legal mechanisms for fisheries development of Bangladesh. The implementations of these laws often met limited success due to a number of shortcomings in the legislations. The constraints in the implementation are the lack of clear policy guidelines and strategy; inadequacy of existing regulatory framework, non-enforcement of legislation and jurisdictional conflicts, the absence of regular law review and updating mechanism and formulation of by-laws, rules, orders etc. However, in recent years, Bangladesh Government has taken some initiatives towards the conservation and management of fish stocks (e.g., hilsa fishery), both to optimize total production and ensure fisher’s livelihoods. Furthermore, a comprehensive legal framework is required for sustainable management of fisheries resources in Bangladesh.