Chapter 13 - Geographical Information and Map Services

This paper characterizes the requirements of geographic information systems (GIS) middleware and its components for dynamic registering and discovering of spatial services specifically for collaborative modeling in environmental planning. The paper explores the role of Web services with respect to implementation standard and protocols and identifies implementation features for exposing distributed GIS business logic and components via Web services. In particular, the paper illustrates applications of the interoperability specifications of Open GIS Consortium’s (OGC) Web mapping service and (WMS), Web processing standards (WPS) with respect to implementation feature. The paper demonstrates a prototype implementation of collaborative environmental decision support systems (GEO-ELCA- Exploratory Land Use Change Assessment) where Web service-enabled middleware adds core functionality to a Web mapping service. The application demonstrates how individual workspace-based namespaces can be used to perform Web mapping functionality.

Hydrologic modeling increasingly involves the use of a geographic information system (GIS), usually in order to obtain the topographic features relevant to the hydrology of a study area. However, despite the increasing availability of digital spatial data (in vector and raster formats) and the growing sophistication of modeling softwares, it is important that hydrologists and surveyors be aware of the effects of errors on their models and subsequent applications. This paper examines the nature and consequences of spatial errors in GIS, and explores ways of mitigating the risks of error propagation in digital hydrologic models.

In the study, Land Resources Information System (LRIS) of India has been designed and developed using geographic information system (GIS) to effectively store, update, manage and query land and allied resource database. Based on the standardized datasets generated under LRIS, NBSS BHOOMI Geoportal has been designed and developed to visualize, query and disseminate various theme-based Web Map Services (WMS) and applications for agricultural land use planning. The thematic information on major physiographic regions, sub-physiographic regions, agro-ecological regions, agro-ecological subregions, soil data of India on 1:1 m and 1:250,000 scale, soil loss status and land degradation status of India, 1:50,000 scale soil data for selected districts and 1:10,000 scale soil data for selected blocks of India has been processed and deployed in LRIS and Geoportal. The point database on climatic data, benchmark soils, soil fertility, soil loss grid points of India and soil series data for 18 states and 22 districts has been deployed in Geoportal. Digital elevation models of SRTM DEM (90 m and 30 m) and ASTER DEM (30 m), the thematic database on major crop growing areas, land management units and potential growing areas for 17 crops at India and state level have been processed and deployed in BHOOMI Geoportal. The developed LRIS and NBSS BHOOMI Geoportal have immense potential in sustainable management of land resources and develop smart agricultural land use plans in India.

For the performance of geographic information systems, it has been widely recognized that efficient data structures and algorithms supporting proximity based access to spatial data are a crucial ingredient. Because of that, in the last years, a lot of data structures for storage of multidimensional non-point objects have been proposed in the literature (for an overview see our tutorial introduction in this volume). Almost all of these approaches are made to support queries based on spatial neighborhood of objects, so-called proximity queries. Common examples of such proximity queries are range queries, returning all objects intersecting a given (rectangular) region, or nearest neighbor queries, determining the object nearest to a given point. But a geographic or cartographic information system should also support queries that do not exclusively refer to the spatial neighborhood of objects. For example, different versions of spatial data must be organized such that proximity queries to any version of the data can be answered efficiently. Or, given a set of object classes, a spatial query that involves an arbitrary combination of these classes should also be supported. Because of the growing size of data sets to be handled in geographic information systems, an appropriate data organisation to support such and several other application-specific queries becomes more and more important. In this paper, we will present two approaches for access structures supporting the two types of queries mentioned above. Handling of versioned, spatial data is the topic of Section 2, while Section 3 discusses queries on some classes selected from the set of object classes stored in a geographic information system.

<p>For precision agriculture (PA) applications that use aerial platforms, researchers are likely to be interested in extracting, study and understanding biophysical and structural properties in a spatio-temporal manner by using remotely sensed imagery to infer variations of vegetation biomass and/or plant vigor, irrigation strategies, nutrient use efficiency, stress, disease identification, among others. This requires measuring spectral responses of the crop at specific wavelengths by using, for instance, Vegetation Indices (VI). However, for the analysis of this spectral response and its heterogeneity and spatial variability, a large amount of aerial imagery (data) must be collected and processed using a photogrammetry software. Data extraction is often performed in a Geographic Information System (GIS) software and then analyzed using (in general) statistical software. On the one hand, a GIS is used for the collection of resources to manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of geographically referenced information. In this regard, Quantum GIS (QGIS) is one of the most well-known open-source software used which provides an integration of geoprocessing tools from a variety of different software libraries. QGIS is widely used to obtain VI computations through the raster calculator, although, this computation is performed with band rasters manually provided by the user; one by one, which is time-consuming. On the other hand, QGIS provides a Python interface to efficiently exploit the capabilities of a GIS to create similar plugins, but this can be a non-trivial task. In this work, we developed a specific and QGIS independent semi-automatic tool called <strong>ViCTool (Vegetation index Computation Tool) </strong>as a free open-source software (FOSS) for large amount of data extraction to derive VIs from aerial raster images in a certain region of interest. This tool has the option of extracting several multispectral and RGB VIs employing Blue, Green, Red, NIR, LWIR, or Red edge bands. The user must provide the input folder path containing one or more raster band folders, the shapefile with the regions of Interests, an output path to store the output VI rasters, and the file containing the VI computations. ViCTool was developed using Python PyQT for designing the User Interface (UI) and Python GDAL for raster processing to simplify and speed up the process of calculating a large amount of data intuitively.</p>

• A data service system for the selected SMAP data and its derivative data products over CONUS is developed. • All map and geoprocessing services are implemented via the OGC standard interface. • The data service system is interoperable with web and desktop clients. • Monitoring and analyzing U.S. cropland soil moisture conditions are significantly simplified. Soil moisture is an essential parameter to understand crop conditions throughout the growing season. Collecting soil moisture data by field observation is labor-intensive, especially when attempting to obtain Conterminous United States (CONUS) geographic coverage. In addition, using soil moisture for assessing current and future crop conditions is best realized by combining soil moisture estimates with concurrent observations of crop conditions. However, until recently, this capability has not been available to the public. In this paper, we present an interoperable data service application system, the Crop Condition and Soil Moisture Analytics (Crop-CASMA) system, that facilitates the retrieval, analysis, visualization, and sharing of soil moisture data for the CONUS. This system delivers a variety of satellite remote sensing based data products that are derived from Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) Level-4 data and SMAP Thermal Hydraulic disaggregation of Soil Moisture (THySM) data, as well as vegetation index data derived from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) observations. To make services interoperable and reusable, all data products are disseminated via Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Web Map Service (WMS) and Web Coverage Service (WCS) interface standards. Additionally, a suite of geoprocessing operations, such as geospatial statistics, time-series profile generation, PDF map production, and image composition, has been implemented in the OGC Web Processing Service (WPS) interface standard. The implementation shows the proposed web service system can significantly simplify the mapping and quantitative analysis of soil moisture and crop condition over U.S. cropland. In addition, it is interoperable with GIS software and has been successfully integrated with web-based applications.

Geographic Information System (GIS) on web mapping form is one of new technology in developing web applications for spatial data processing. This system, is capable of  spatial data and attribute data analyzing, thus it makes user easier in using this information system. Nowadays web mapping technology not only used for spatial problems solving, but also for data analyzing. The use of GIS are in the fields of medical, politic, social, electricity, engineering etc. This research was a development of web based GIS for dissemination funding assistance for school operational ( Bantuan Operasional Sekolah = BOS) which this system was made by map server and chameleon for web mapping application. This GIS in dissemination of BOS funds program produces spatial analyzing as dissemination of BOS funding map.

The Minnesota Lake Superior shoreline (Minnesota'S “North Shore”) is characterized by a rocky shoreline with stretches of sand, gravel and cobble as well as several stream and ditch inlets into Lake Superior. The risk of spills is from both land and water. The 150 plus mile stretch of shoreline has a very limited amount of response equipment or nearby responders. The Duluth-Superior Harbor is at the estuarine mouth of the St. Louis River and is divided by the Minnesota and Wisconsin border. The harbor includes sensitive shorelines and habitats, numerous stream, ditch and storm sewer outfalls, as well as an active shipping industry. Geographic Information System (GIS) is a great tool for conducting data analysis and planning. GIS allows users to analyze and visualize large volumes of data to make decisions quickly. While many spill response planners use GIS as a planning response tool, many responders do not have the training and equipment to make efficient use of the capabilities of GIS. This project uses GIS to gather and analyze available data and then put it into a useful “hardcopy” visual format for responders to use in the field. Maps produced from various GIS data sources outline the response strategies for sensitive areas to be protected; types and quantities of response equipment needed; access areas; and other important features. These “hardcopy” displays can be included in contingency plans. Larger laminated versions can be stored with response equipment caches. For response planners that are more familiar with GIS, the tool includes several useful features including “clickable” hyperlinks that connect to georeferenced oblique aerial photos of the Lake Superior shoreline. Also included are GIS data from U.S. EPA and NOAA, including sensitive environment, economic and cultural resources; potential spill sources; and response resources. Where available, sewer data for both sanitary and storm sewers is included, along with high resolution aerial photos; navigation charts; highway stream crossing data; and other habitat information. These various data sources are valuable tools for spill response planners to more accurately and effectively develop workable response strategies and also for use during an actual response to more effectively and efficiently direct responders and resources. This GIS product also incorporates an Access database which allows for easy report generation and information updating.

Abstract. Research in geographic information science has not yet found clear answers to the questions of what geographic information is about or what a geographic information system (GIS) contains. This lack of consensus makes it especially challenging to teach and learn GIS. Existing pedagogical approaches either focus on the representational level of data (e.g., “raster and vector”) or are too generic (e.g., “geo-referenced information”). This characterization of GIS and its content is difficult for learners to transfer and apply broadly. As instructors, we approach the challenge of teaching GIS from a conceptual basis. We describe our process to develop a set of core concepts of spatial information, which we use to redesign an undergraduate-level introductory GIS course. Our intervention focuses instruction on the kinds of questions that geographic information enables before training students to produce workflows and answers through system commands. The course redesign complements and informs ongoing research on core concepts of spatial information. Our results demonstrate that GIS courses can deliver more than software training, indicating both theoretical gains and didactic challenges.

The Web Map Server Implementation Specification (WMS), originally developed and published by the Open Geospatial Consortium, was finally adopted by ISO as an international standard. According to this standard maps are presented either in picture formats or formats. While the pictorial (visual) representation uses raster formats, graphic element formats include Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) or Web Computer Graphics Metafile (WebCGM) format. In this paper a framework for supporting Web Map Services using SVG will be presented. Geo-data, converted to SVG, is stored in a database management system, retrieved by the WMS server upon user request and transferred - optionally compressed - through the Internet. Finally it is visualized in Web browsers on desktop computes or mobile devices, natively or using plug-ins extending the browser's functionality. Besides supporting the WMS request GetCapabilities, GetMap and GetFeatureInfo requests, additional formats and extensions have been included in this framework. The development proves that open, XML-based standards in combination with modern programming languages and integrated development environments allow rapid implementation of recommendations and standards in geo-informatics.

Social security of the state is the ability to guarantee and provide its citizens with safe and decent living standards. Study of the impact of the war on the state of national security, in particular human social security, will help to identify weaknesses in the state policy implementation in the political, economic and social areas. The impact of Russia's full-scale war against our country on the social security of Ukrainians requires substantiation of new, more effective mechanisms and tools for strengthening human social security in times of war. Under these circumstances, there is a need to apply new technologies to manage the socio-economic processes of the state for analysis and decision-making, and to reflect the current situation. These technologies will make it possible to predict scenarios and offer managers at all levels the best ways to achieve a balanced result. We need technologies that can effectively combine space and time with large amounts of special data in the form of attribute information about objects in the operational environment, background information about regions, climatic conditions, socio-economic conditions and processes in the region, etc. The need for prompt decision-making based on real indicators of anthropogenic, social, and environmental nature, taking into account the factors of space and time in a particular region or area of study, necessitates the involvement of specialized software platforms – geographic information systems that combine analytical capabilities with geospatial analysis. Today, a large number of general-purpose geographic information systems have been developed, but despite the variety of such software products, there is still a need to create specialized geographic information documents and databases that allow obtaining up-to-date geographic information data, the use of which leads to a real reduction in the time required to solve specialized tasks of information management systems. The analysis and decision support system in the environment of existing geographic information platforms will allow to take into account the influence of external factors, analyze the possibility of development, expansion, and monitor the state of the general environment when assessing the current state of input data, using information on the spatial distribution of the necessary resources, information on the competitive environment, etc. With the help of spatial and surface analysis modules, a GIS user can analyze spatially compatible objects and their interrelationships, taking into account the dynamics of their development. Currently, the world leader among geographic information systems is the ArcGIS products. It is a complete system that allows you to collect, organize, manage, analyze, exchange and distribute geographic data. Additionally, ArcGIS, depending on the type and specification of the platform, has other specialized modules that provide a wide range of opportunities for working with geodata and their visual display, namely: creation, management, visualization, analysis and exchange of geographic information. In addition, there are many compatible applications and extensions that integrate into the GIS platform and are focused on solving highly specialized tasks, such as assessing the state of the environment (water, soil, vegetation) or forecasting the development of natural phenomena and man-made emergencies. The article analyzes and substantiates the approaches to the use of a geographic information system as an effective tool for studying the impact of a full-scale war on human social security, improving the efficiency, completeness and quality of information and spatial support for management processes. The modern and full-featured ArcGIS system is considered as a platform that allows not only to form a geographic information system of any scale and purpose, but also to form on its basis an effective system of socio-economic monitoring, which is combined with decision support systems. The article presents an algorithm for studying the impact of a full-scale war on human social security using the ArcGIS system as an effective decision support tool with the use of spatially specialized databases.

Take open source GeoWebCache tile map service middleware as an example, through analysis of its basic principle and system architecture, this paper give three optimization strategies which are tile spatial index, extension mechanism and the deployment strategy. Finally, we make a performance comparison between GeoWebCache and traditional OGC (Open Geospatial Consortium, OGC) standard WMS(Web Map Service). Our experimental results show that the average response time of GeoWebCache reduced by 36% than sending WMS request to WMS server directly. The study shows that GeoWebCache middleware has important application value both in improving traditional WebGIS performance and in upgrading existing legacy systems.

Principles of stereoscopic vision have long been used in geographic data processing and visualization, e.g. Laussedat created what he called metrophotography in 1895 [2][3] and a stereoautograph for plotting from terrestrial photographs was produced in 1911 [2]. Today, a common and established use of stereoscopy in geographic domain is three-dimensional (3D) modeling of terrains and cities based on aerial, satellite and/or terrestrial imagery with photogrammetric techniques. In these systems, commonly, stereoscopic imagery is used as an input and a vector 3D representation of the terrain or city is obtained as an output. Stereoscopy has also been used for close-range photogrammetry, however within the scope of this paper the focus is on the cartographic use of stereoscopic visualizations. In recent years, a number of mainstream digital devices with stereoscopic capabilities are marketed (e.g. [4], [5], [6]), which indicates that we can expect to see more stereoscopic content in the near future [1]. In anticipation of such a development, it is also plausible to expect that stereoscopic geo-data will become more available for everyday use. It is, therefore, interesting to document which stereoscopic visualization features are supported by mainstream geographic information systems (GIS) software and whether these features can be improved. This work presents a survey on current stereoscopic visualization support in geographic information (GI) systems. The underlying objective is to outline future research needs by examining current stereoscopic 3D visualization techniques and tools in current GISs. This paper focuses on visualization modules of GIS software, and tries to answer the question “How commonly is stereoscopic visualization supported in GIS?" To achieve this, first whether such support exits or not in GIS software is documented, then supported types of stereoscopic operations and viewing methods are reported. Motivated by improving efficiency of stereoscopic visualizations in cartographic domain, within this survey, it is also examined whether these software offer level of detail (LOD) management support for stereoscopic datasets. Findings from the study are meant as a guide to researchers and practitioners to assess the current state of True 3D support in widely used GIS software.

Recent advances in open geospatial web service, such as Web Map Service as well as corresponding web ready data processing service, have led to the generation of large amounts of OGC enabled links on Internet. How to find the correct spatial aware web service in a heterogeneous distributed environment with some special criteria, such as coincidence of type, version, time, space and scale has become a "bottleneck" of geospatial web-based applications. In order to improve the accessing precision of OGC Web Map Service (WMS) on WWW, a new methodology for retrieving WMS based on extended search engine and service capability match is put forward in this paper. Major components include the WMS search engine, WMS ontology generator, WMS catalogue service and multi protocol WMS client. Here we proposed the architecture and interaction between these components before focusing on the service capability match and design of the WMS ontology. The process of WMS link detection, capability matching, ontology modeling, and automatic registry are reported in this paper. Then the precision and response time of WMS retrieval is evaluated, results show that the mean execution time during per effective hit of proposed method is 0.44 times than that of traditional method, moreover, the precision is about 10 times than that of traditional method. WMS ontology record could be generated by ontology reasoning, registered and served by CSW.

ABSTRACTThe paper presents a map of historical ponds of the whole Czech Republic which was created on the basis of the 2nd Military Survey (1: 28,000) from the period 1836 to 1852. This source was selected with respect to its age, precision, validity and accessibility at the Czech National Geoportal via the Web Map Service. All water areas, which had existed in the 2nd Military Survey within the current Czech Republic, were identified on this basis and vectorised in the Geographic Information System. Historical ponds larger than 0.5 ha were then picked from this layer, complemented with other attributes and analysed in combination with the current geodata (occurrence of pond, prevailing land use of extinct ponds, etc.). The resulting map may serve as a measure for potential attempts at restoring some extinct ponds, out of which over 3400 ponds larger than 15,500 ha have been discovered. This map source may be practically applied in Spatial Planning and in particular measures taken against changes in the global climate, specifically in the Czech Republic against droughts. The map source may be utilised by state authorities or local administrations.