Conflict Resolution in a Network Society

John W Burton has been a leading theorist in the study of conflict and conflict resolution for more than two decades. While it is possible to trace the development of Burton's theory through a number of writings (e.g., Burton, 1962; 1965; 1972; 1979; and 1984), this paper will concentrate on two statements of it: the comprehensive monograph Deviance, Terrorism and War (Burton, 1979) and Generic Theory: The Basis of Conflict Resolution, an article written with Dennis]. D. Sandole that appeared in the October 1986 issue of this journal (Burton and Sandole, 1986). In the monograph Burton proclaims a Kuhnian in the study of conflict, and indeed of society itself. This shift entails moving away from a power/coercion/zero-sum game model of social exchange to one based on mutual problem-solving, settlement, and win-win outcomes. Underlying this shift is a theory of society based upon universal, ontological, and generic/ genetic needs. This theory is sharply distinguished by him from one that emphasizes social institutions, structures, norms, laws or conventions more so than the individual. Burton views the two theories as inimically opposed, and much of Deviance, Terrorism and War is framed as a critique of the institutional theory, and as a brief for his needs-based alternative. The latest effort (Burton and Sandole, 1986) carries this work further. Because Burton's theory of conflict is postulated on a set of human needs that are held to be universal, Burton and Sandole are able to argue strongly for the generic nature of this theory, as well as for the processes of conflict resolution which are, in their view, deducible from the theory. This is one sense in which they mean generic: transcending observable differences of race, class, culture, and so on. The second sense in which they claim their theory of conflict and conflict resolution is generic has to do with its range of applicability Specifically, Burton and Sandole argue that their generic theory of conflict and conflict resolution is applicable at all of social intercourse, from interpersonal, marital and domestic, to international. If we accept this second sense of generic, then we may understand why the authors believe that the old discipline-based paradigm for the study of conflict-psychology, sociology or anthropology, international relations, etc.-is outmoded. These disciplines all implicitly accept the reality and integrity of different levels of social discourse and interaction. Burton and Sandole reject this in favor of a theory that makes possible a radically adisciplinary science of conflict and conflict resolution.

124 SEER, 82, I, 2004 isthatit 'examinesthe orientationand trendsof Ukraine'sforeignand security policy from the perspective of severaldifferentand often opposing schools of international relations theory. It is, in short, an attempt to link area studies and internationalrelationstheory througha focus on Ukraine'sforeignpolicy orientation' (pp. 2-3). The contributors indeed draw on a variety of IR theories, although most incline to 'constructivism' over 'realism'. On the whole, the book sensiblyavoidsseekingan artificiallynarrowedconsensusand there is much that is interestingand useful amongst the conflictingviews (or, as Moroney puts it on page 7, 'widearrayof plausibleperspectives')expressed in the volume. Some contributors claim to see an underlying consistency in Ukraine's foreign policy since I99i; to others 'Ukrainian foreign policy is that of oscillation' (p. 227). Some see that consistency as maintaining an underlying pro-Western course; others see an inevitable balancing act. However, the theoretical pluralismencouraged by the editors does not necessarilyproduce divergent opinions given the constraining reality of Ukrainian circumstance . As Paul D'Anieri wisely points out, 'the same policy patternsseem to validate both power politics and constructivistapproaches. Currently, both internal identity politics and external geopolitics motivate Ukraine towards the same policy:workto establishclose ties with Europe, distinguishUkraine from Russia, but do not make any fundamental break with Russia. In that sensepolicies over the lastten yearshave been overdetermined'(p. 52). There is a sensible balance in most authors' approaches between identity politics, 'realism',the external nexus and contingent factors,such as a useful chapter by Tor Bukkvollon Ukraine's new business groups and their (again often divergent) foreign policy preferences. Mikhail Molchanov's conclusion 'even ifthisbook does not claim to have produceda singleoverarching approach to cover most of the problems involved, it demonstrated the value of such a combination of methods' (p. 277) is apt. This is a much richer book on Ukrainian foreign and security policy than any other that has appearedto date. School ofSlavonic andEastEuropean Studies ANDREW WILSON UTniversity CollegeLondon van Tongeren, Paul, van de Veen, Hans and Verhoeven, Juliette (eds). Searchingfor PeaceinEurope andEurasia.An Overview ofConflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Activities.A Project of the European Centre for Conflict Prevention.Lynne Rienner Publishers,Boulder,CO, and London, 2002. xvi + 832 pp. Illustrations. Maps. Tables. Appendices. Bibliography. Indexes. ?53 95 THEbook under review is a collection of essays written by more than forty scholars and commentators, and is a major contribution to the critical study of conflict resolution and peacebuilding in internationalrelations.It provides insights into the dynamics of conflict and peacemaking activities in Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia, focusing on the effortsof regional organizations and NGOs. The book's emphasis is on the role of civil society in the REVIEWS 125 processes of peace and conflict resolution, and gives a thorough coverage of the activitiesof grassrootsgroups.It isthe productof 'The SearchingforPeace Program of the European Centre for Conflict Prevention' (Utrecht, The Netherlands) established in cooperation with a number of regional and internationalorganizationsand governments. The book is dividedinto threeparts,and benefitsfroma rich and accessible directoryon the profilesof 400 organizationsin Europe and Eurasiaworking in the field. Readerswill alsofindusefultwo setsof appendices and indexes. The firstpartpresentsa number of theoreticaland empiricalstudieson the role of the EU and OSCE in the process of conflict resolution and peacebuilding in Europe and Eurasia. The question of minorities, ethnic differences, emigration, peacemaking and conflict prevention in Western Europe, SouthernEurope,Russia,is examined in detail.Forthisreviewer,the most interesting and constructive contribution is by Michael Lund. Having emphasized the importance of learning lessons from a variety of experiences, he providesinsightsinto the understandingof thepreventionof violent conflict by offering three major steps for effective country-level prevention. These include conflict analysis, prevention analysis and prevention action. Lund's assessmentis that publicity and lobbying do not automaticallylead to more effectiveprevention, rather,morepoliticalpressureneeds to be applied. Part two provides case studies on conflict prevention and peacemaking in NorthernIreland,Spain, Cyprus,andTurkeyand in the countriesof Southern Europe, particularlyKosovo. Other discussions focus on Eurasia including Russia, the southern Caucusus and Central Asia. The major contribution to this section is by Anna Matveeva in her case studieson the Caucasus region. She argues that conflict in this region could spill over to threaten Russian national security and is influenced by the situation in neighbouring states, particularly in the shape...

This article analyzes two theories of conflict resolution and their applicability to Ogoniland in Nigeria: western approaches to conflict resolution and indigenous African conflict resolution systems. The empirical evidence we use to evaluate these two approaches is based on the perceptions expressed by respondents in two communities in Ogoniland, K-Dere and Kanni-Babbe. In October and December 2016, we distributed 200 survey questionnaires across these two communities. Of these, 178 were returned for analysis. In addition, we conducted thirty-one key informant interviews and four focus group discussions. The results show that while beneficiaries of both conflict resolution systems praise them, some community members do not feel educationally qualified and/or cannot afford to use western approaches to conflict resolution and perceive that indigenous African conflict resolution systems are a source of conflict rather than reconciliation. We conclude that if western approaches to conflict resolution were supplemented by a legal aid system such as a public defender, they would be more accessible to disadvantaged people and would offer a practicable alternative to the potentially biased indigenous African conflict resolution systems. This would significantly improve the level of conflict resolution in Ogoniland.

The active role of women in the process of conflict resolution expected on resulting policy with gender perspective and accelerate the process of peace. In reality, women have limited participation in the conflict resolution process, so it will result the bias gender policy and not in favour of women interest. Matrilineal cultural system is not asure that women have more power in the eforts of peace. For example is the case of rehabilitation and reconstruction conflict at Pasar Raya Padang after September 30th, 2009 earthquake. This paper explain the role of women in the contex of Minangkabau matrilineal cultural system in the conflict resolution process at Pasar Raya Padang rehabilitation and reconstruction. This paper describe participation, the strength and weakness of women, and the meaning of matrilineal culture for the role of women in the process of conflict resolution.

The starting-point of the thesis is the idea that conflict may be endemic and even functional. However, the question remains whether the man is inherently aggressive and violent. It is assumed in the thesis that every theory of conflict and conflict resolution consists of an image of human 'being' and human nature, and that one of the most seminal analyses a conflict analyst can engage in deals with these images. John Burton is one of the leading figures in the field of conflict and conflict resolution theory who introduced the notion of 'problem-solving workshop conflict resolution' to Internationa Relations in the late 1960s. The thesis focuses on how Burton applies human needs thinking to conflict and conflict resolution theory. It examines also what kind of 'model of man' is included in his theory. It is argued that Burton's biologically-based image of human 'being' leads him to deny culture its constitutive role in conflict and conflict resolution. In other words, Burton's conception of universal human needs which function as motives of behaviour offers a potent way to defuse contextualism. As a consequence, problem-solving workshop conflict resolution is thought by Burton to be essentially the same for all peoples of all cultures. In the second half of the thesis a social constructionist image of human 'being' which clearly challenges Burton's views, is introduced. It studies how social groups and institutions distribute knowledge, define reality through shared typifications and use language. Moreover, it is argued that reality as well as needs and identifies are socially and culturally constructed. Given this notion of human existence, the thesis claims that problem-solving workshop conflict resolution can be best understood to be an attempt to find a shared reality between the parties in conflict.

This chapter discusses the relevance of considering human rights in the context of conflict resolution interventions and processes, arguing that doing so can enhance the transformative potential of such efforts. It contends that incorporating a human rights perspective in our analysis of and approach to destructive or violent conflict deepens the understanding of the issues at stake and how to work effectively towards sustainable peace. Taking human rights into account prompts more emphasis on underlying conditions that are pivotal in generating, escalating and transforming such conflict –notably the role of the state, systems of governance, and issues of power– than is often common in conflict resolution initiatives. Considering human rights also benefits the design of conflict resolution processes and assessment of options for resolution. Yet drawing on human rights standards, concepts and practices in conflict resolution is not straightforward; various challenges that may arise, implying that ‘human rights’ are no panacea for all trials and tribulations encountered in conflict resolution. The chapter nevertheless identifies some practical implications for conflict resolution that provide opportunities to boost its transformative impact.

While the challenges of improving young people's citizenship skills seem to lie in the hands of schools, studying alternative ways of teaching conflict resolution could benefit current educational systems. Judicial committees – a democratic approach to conflict resolution – like those practiced in free schools – schools where students and teachers are largely entitled to similar rights and obligations – represent such an alternative. The present inquiry is an ethnographic case study that draws upon complexity thinking. It aims at understanding students' experiences during free school judicial committees. It argues that, in a school where students enjoy a significant amount of freedom, students interacted in many ways. This gave rise to some conflicts. To tackle them, students followed various procedures inherent to judicial committees. During these activities, students mostly experienced a combination of feelings while engaging in conflict resolution processes and modifying their conflict resolution skills. The study ends by arguing that conventional schools can draw upon the principles associated to judicial committees to further how they teach conflict resolution.

ObjectivesTo investigate the independent contribution of change in sub-total body fat and lean mass to cognitive performance, specifically the executive processes of selective attention and conflict resolution, in community-dwelling older women.MethodsThis secondary analysis included 114 women aged 65 to 75 years old. Participants were randomly allocated to once-weekly resistance training, twice-weekly resistance training, or twice-weekly balance and tone training. The primary outcome measure was the executive processes of selective attention and conflict resolution as assessed by the Stroop Test. Sub-total body fat and lean mass were measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) to determine the independent association of change in both sub-total body fat and sub-total body lean mass with Stroop Test performance at trial completion.ResultsA multiple linear regression model showed reductions in sub-total body fat mass to be independently associated with better performance on the Stroop Test at trial completion after accounting for baseline Stroop performance, age, baseline global cognitive state, baseline number of comorbidities, baseline depression, and experimental group. The total variance explained was 39.5%; change in sub-total body fat mass explained 3.9% of the variance. Change in sub-total body lean mass was not independently associated with Stroop Test performance (P>0.05).ConclusionOur findings suggest that reductions in sub-total body fat mass – not sub-total lean mass – is associated with better performance of selective attention and conflict resolution.

It has been established that conflict is inevitable in organisations given the composite nature of the work environment. This study on Information Exchange and Collaborative Problem-Solving Roles in Organizational Conflict Resolution specifically reviewed the import of the exchange of information and collaborative problem-solving in the conflict resolution process. The study employed the use of a structured questionnaire administered through Google form to 180 respondents involving Executives, Management, Union leaders, and other rank officers from Banking & Fintech, Professional Institutes, Manufacturing, MDAs, Telecom, Oil & Gas sectors from southwest Nigeria using a stratified random sampling technique. Two research questions and two hypotheses were raised to guide the study. The two hypotheses were tested at a 0.05 level of significance using the T. test table. Data were analysed using charts, tabulations, percentages, and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Co- efficient (PPMC) methods. The outcome of the hypotheses confirmed that there were significant relationships among the exchange of information, collaborative problem-solving, and conflict resolution in the organisation. Essentially the purpose of conflict resolution in the organization is to enhance collaboration, and consensus building, promote inclusiveness of all social partners, and intervene in matters that could instigate conflict. The exchange of information and collaborative problem-solving proved to be potent instruments for promoting effective conflict resolutions. It is therefore recommended that organizations should adopt the use of these forms of social dialogue in resolving conflicts.

The Stroop test is a widely used neuropsychological test measuring attention and conflict resolution, which shows sensitivity across a range of diseases, including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and Huntington’s diseases. A rodent analogue of the Stroop test, the Response-Conflict task (rRCT), allows for systematic investigation of the neural systems underpinning performance in this test. Little is known about the involvement of the basal ganglia in this neural process. The aim of this study was to use the rRCT to determine whether striatal subregions are recruited during conflict resolution processing. To achieve this, rats were exposed to Congruent or Incongruent stimuli in the rRCT and the expression patterns of the immediate early gene Zif268 were analysed throughout cortical, hippocampal and basal ganglia subregions. The results confirmed the previously reported involvement of prefrontal cortical and hippocampal regions, as well as identifying a specific role for the dysgranular (but not granular) retrosplenial cortex in conflict resolution. Finally, performance accuracy correlated significantly with reduced neural activation in the dorsomedial striatum. Involvement of the basal ganglia in this neural process has not previously been reported. These data demonstrate that the cognitive process of conflict resolution requires not only prefrontal cortical regions, but also recruits the dysgranular retrosplenial cortex and the medial region of the neostriatum. These data have implications for understanding the neuroanatomical changes that underpin impaired Stroop performance in people with neurological disorders.

Culture is a system of shared belief and customs in the society. In other way, culture is the symbol of the life of people. Myanmar and its citizen has suffered the trauma of ethnic conflicts throughout the history since 1948. The governments of Myanmar throughout the times have also been finding the solution for conflict resolution and peace process based on the political approach. Now, it is the time for considering about an alternative approach to conflict resolution and peace process based on the culture which is the symbol of the people. The study aims to provide the new interpretation in completing conflict resolution by Myanmar government and a kind of support that can reveal the hidden and being forgotten cultures and identities of ethnic minority groups in Myanmar based on cultural communication. The researcher made two group discussions with ethnic people in two ethnic regions of Myanmar and had in-depth conversation for detailed facts and information. The research mainly presents the impact of culture communication as a better tool for conflict resolution and peace process based on the real voices of ethnic people.

Interactive problem solving is an unofficial, third-party approach to conflict resolution, which brings together politically influential representatives of conflicting parties for direct interaction in problem-solving workshops. Experiences from this microprocess are used here as a metaphor for the macroprocesses of negotiation and diplomacy. The use of interactive problem solving as a metaphor for the larger process of conflict resolution implies that the conflicting parties have a shared problem in their relationship, which needs to be solved by addressing the underlying causes and dynamics of the conflict in an interactive process. Within this framework, the article describes the ultimate goal of negotiation as transforming the relationship between the parties via an agreement that addresses the fundamental needs and fears of both on a basis of reciprocity. It then discusses four components of the larger process of conflict resolution--identification and analysis of the problem, joint shaping of ideas ...

A method for conflict detection and resolution based on the parameterization of the aircraft intents is presented. The method is also based on the use of predefined trajectory patterns, which are in fact flight intents; these patterns include standard airline procedures and air traffic control regulations. The conflict resolution problem is formulated as a parametric optimization problem subject to constraints; the optimality criterium is defined so that the deviation from the intended (preferred) trajectories in the lateral profile is minimized. The resolution trajectory patterns take into account changes of the nominal waypoints (vectoring) and changes of the aircraft speeds. The method is applied to the case of multiple conflicts among commercial transport aircraft in converging traffic in the terminal area; different scenarios are considered, which include locked aircraft, that is, aircraft whose trajectories are known and fixed. The conflict detection and resolution algorithm relies on a kinetic trajectory predictor (nonlinear point-mass model with variable mass), which is accurate, flexible, and transparent, and provides the high-fidelity prediction required in the analysis of the demanding terminal area traffic. The cost of the global conflict resolution process is assessed, in terms of extra distance traveled, extra flight time, and extra fuel consumed for each aircraft.

Automated reasoning, a significant field within artificial intelligence, has attracted increased attention in recent years due to the rising demand for trustworthy AI. Binary resolution, among other inference rules, is crucial in automated reasoning of first-order logic, including the new conflict resolution method. Conflict resolution processes only two clauses in each deduction step and eliminates a complementary pairs of literals from input clauses. This paper proposes a contradiction separation conflict deduction (CSCD) method based on the contradiction separation rule to address these limitations. This novel resolution methodology, together with its automated reasoning theory and method, handles several clauses in each deduction step to seek for conflicts and generates learnt clauses through synergized deduction. Thus, the approach improves deduction by detecting conflicts more effectively, especially with lengthier input clauses. CSCD and conflict resolution are analyzed in detail, then how to create a practical CSCD algorithm and its implementation is summarized. We tested the CSCD algorithm to solve the CASC-26 problems and also applied it to the current leading ATP system (Eprover). Experimental results show that the CSCD deduction approach improves reasoning capability of conflict deduction method. Additionally, the Eprover with the proposed CSCD algorithm improves its performance and has solved various problems with a rating of 1 from the benchmark database TPTP.

There is a growing demand for religion and spirituality in conflict resolution processes. Is this dangerous or praiseworthy, and how should we respond? The authors reviewed literature from conflict resolution, psychology, and law. They conclude that faith, religion, spirituality, and values: (1) can have a safe place in the process; (2) need to be a subject of expertise for conflict resolvers; and (3) should be understood through the self‐awareness work of being an ethical practitioner, regardless of their beliefs. The authors explore the implications of this for the self‐determination of parties and the legitimacy of third‐party roles.