Cross-Subsidization in Higher Education: Does it Pervert Private Choice and Public Policy?

With the continuous expansion of enrollment in private colleges and universities and the expansion of private universities' scale, China's private universities has been exposed to the shortage of education funds and the decline of teaching quality, especially the performance evaluation problem, which has aroused widespread concern in society. Based on the comprehensive research results at home and abroad, this paper establishes the performance evaluation index system of private universities and discusses how to scientifically evaluate the performance of private universities, just take a private university as an example, aiming at improving the utilization rate of higher education resources and promoting the rapid and healthy development of private universities.

Recently Published Dissertations on Community and Junior Colleges

A general equilibrium analysis of state and private colleges and access to higher education in the U.S.

Turkish Council of Higher Education (YÖK) started to publish University Monitoring and Evaluation General Reports since 2019. Three reports (2019-2020-2021) have been published. Average annual data of state and private universities in Turkey are available in these reports. These reports also include data about various aspects of university education under the titles of Instruction and Research & Development (R&D). This study aims to determine pros and cons of state and private universities for Turkish and international university applicants by comparing the data averages of the 2019, 2020 and 2021 reports about the Instruction and the Research & Development (R&D) of both university types. Under the Instruction title; data about number of accredited undergraduate programs, occupancy rate of the programs, number of students participating in teknokent (technopole) or technology transfer office (TTO) projects, number of programs in the top 5% of the public servant selection exam (KPSS), number of international symposiums, congresses or artistic exhibitions, number of social responsibility projects implemented by students, number of industrial projects implemented by students and number of printed books and e-publications for each student were examined. Under the Research & Development title; data about number of publications published in national peer-reviewed journals and in SCI, SCI-Expanded, SSCI and AHCI indexed journals, number of cited publications in the top 10%, number of applied and granted patents, utility models and designs, number of R&D projects supported by national and international institutions and organizations, ratio of investment budget spent on R&D, income except for subsidy, innovation and product development income from laboratory services within the scope of R&D and number of joint projects with industry were examined. Document analysis method was used in the study as a qualitative research method. Document analysis includes the analysis of written materials containing information about the phenomenon or facts to be investigated. In the field of education: Textbooks, instructional regulations, internal and external correspondence, official documents... can be used as data source (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2013, pp.217-218). Data averages of state and private universities were evaluated. Data differences among universities in same category were not included. The results shows that both state and private universities have pros and cons in terms of instruction and R&D, but state universities are advantageous regarding data numbers and diversity. While private universities are profit-oriented and attach importance to individual development, state universities are more collaborative and are community-oriented. Keywords: state university, private university, universities in Turkiye, instruction, R&D

Social responsibility is a leading term in today's world, whether it is related to profit-making corporations or non-profit organizations. Many corporations do social responsibility in terms of corporate social responsibility, but it is in terms of university social responsibility if we talk about universities. Universities have taken up different types of social responsibility initiatives in both developing and developed countries. Through social responsibility initiatives, there is a need to understand private and state universities' involvement in society and the environment. By imparting knowledge and empowering students, universities serve the Society; this study would observe other universities' social responsibility initiatives towards their Society and Environment. The purpose of this paper is to explore the impact of social responsibility initiatives taken up by private and state universities of Rajasthan towards Society and environment. This paper is using survey research method based on simple random sampling and studying twenty private and state universities of Rajasthan by focusing two main dimensions service to Society and service to environment. The findings of this research show that Private and State Universities are doing more social responsibility initiatives towards Society rather than environment and based on hypothesis testing, it is concluded that there is no statistically significant difference between social responsibility initiatives taken up by private and state universities of Rajasthan while on the basis of the correlation and regression results, there is a significant impact of social responsibility initiatives taken up by private and state universities of Rajasthan towards society and environment. Social Responsibility Initiatives in state universities have a more positive attitude towards Society.

“Good luck on your first day as an assistant professor, Dr. Tanner! Have a great class!” On the wall above my desk, these words scream out from an otherwise encouraging note that is adorned with many exclamation points. This note has hung on my wall since my very first day as an Assistant Professor of Biology. As I was charging off to teach my first class, a senior faculty member who had been on my hiring committee slipped this note under my office door. In moments of pause years later, I still stare up at that note and breathe a sigh of relief that I had much more than luck to guide me on my first day as a college-level teacher. Although I continue to have much to learn—as all of us do no matter the number of years of teaching experience—I did arrive at the university with both formal and informal training in science education. I had had plenty of exposure to innovative pedagogical approaches, questioning strategies, and techniques for engaging diverse audiences in learning science. As a scientist educator, I had had the privilege of many years of collaboration with outstanding K–12 educators as well as a postdoctoral fellowship in science education. However, my training has been, to say the least, unconventional compared with that of my fellow junior faculty and unique in its preparation in regard to the teaching and learning of my discipline. It will not be news to anyone reading this article that university and college teaching is to a large extent a profession with no formal training. It’s startling but true that the majority of faculty members—and lecturers who often teach large numbers of students—have no formal training in the teaching and learning of their discipline. In fact, the hiring process in university science departments is structured primarily to evaluate a faculty candidate’s ability to be a productive researcher, with success measured in number of publications and magnitude of grant funds raised. Depending on the type of institution, for example, research university, state-level university, or liberal arts college, there may be a component of the faculty interview process that probes a candidate’s teaching ability, for example, requesting a statement of teaching philosophy and requiring the candidate to teach a sample lecture class. However, this sample lecture often screens for gross inadequacies, rather than looking for stellar innovations or pedagogical skills. This lack of formal, accredited training for university and college instructors stands in stark contrast to the requirements for a high school teacher who is charged with the education of students only a year junior to college freshmen. High school teachers in the United States must be credentialed as a secondary science teacher, demonstrate subject matter competency in every subject that they will be teaching, and must continually engage in professional development in the teaching and learning of their discipline throughout their career as a science teacher. With the 2002 federal No Child Left Behind legislation, the onus is upon each precollege science teacher to become “highly qualified” in terms of formal university-level training in science education. However, no such required professional training or measurable standards for teaching are required in institutions of higher education. Many policy documents have suggested standards of teaching practice in postsecondary science education (National Research Council, 1996, 1997; Siebert and McIntosh, 2001), but the extent of implementation of these ideals is unclear and has gone relatively unstudied, although national and regional accreditation boards do look at outcomes, asking colleges and universities to assess what their students have gained from four years of study at their institutions. Nonetheless, there is a striking reversal of accountability that happens when one crosses the precollege teaching to college-level teaching boundary (Table 1). During the K–12 school years, society expects K–12 teachers to be responsible for student learning. Salaries of teachers in many states are tied to student test scores, and poor student performance can potentially invoke penalties. At a college or university, several variables in the educational universe shift. Students are the ones responsible for learning. The evaluation and compensation of college-level teachers is not DOI: 10.1187/cbe.05–12–0132 Address correspondence to: Kimberly Tanner (kdtanner@sfsu.edu). CBE—Life Sciences Education Vol. 5, 1–6, Spring 2006

Women Presidents: Now 26.4% but Still Underrepresented

Malawi’s demographic dividend remains low with a population that is young, comprising 46% below the age of 15. The majority of the population is involved in agriculture, which is the backbone of the economy; however, there has been limited investment, especially in agriculture higher education. There remains a big gap between higher education and development. A study was therefore undertaken to understand current status and identify challenges and opportunities in higher education, with special focus on agriculture. Literature was reviewed and the public, private sector and civil society were consulted using checklists. Findings show that Malawi has four public universities and sixteen private universities registered with the National Council for Higher Education. None of the universities is highly ranked in the global ranking systems for higher education instituons. This is as a result of limited research and publications, limited funding, poor infrastructure, non-industry oriented curriculum and compromised quality of education. Therefore, universities should intensify interaction with industry to improve research, curriculum design and delivery and graduate training and research quality. The National Council for Higher Education in Malawi and line ministry should develop a national qualifications framework, in reference to international standards, to guide and regulate quality of university programmes. Overall, the government and development partners should prioritize investing in the young generation to advance to higher education in order to reap a significant demographic dividend and foster development. Key words: Agriculture, demographic dividend, investment, University ranking

Grading system is an integral part of education system of a country, and this is the process of evaluation of the students about their academic excellence and expertise. Employers give proper value and rely on the grading of the graduates to evaluate their employability in the selection process of job. So, it is expected to have a uniform grading system in all the academic institutions of a country to depict a picture of nondiscrimination and equality differentiation of the graduates. There is a dissatisfaction of the Pharmacy graduated passing from different universities in Bangladesh due to the differences of grading systems in different private universities which is badly impacting to the graduates for getting their jobs in pharmaceutical companies and different other private and public universities and even getting scholarships in higher education abroad. This study aimed to report the actual grading systems followed by different private and public universities offering Pharmacy education in Bangladesh. The information about the grading system of different universities were collected from the respective website of the university as well as by contacting with the relevant person/authority of the university that do not have proper information in their websites. Pharmacy education is provided by 13 public and 30 private universities in Bangladesh. Our investigation found that all the public universities follow the UGC recommended uniform grading system. Among the 30 private universities, 25 universities follow the UGC recommended grading system; however, 5 universities do not follow the UGC provided grading system, rather these universities are following own different grading system. All the five grading systems are also different from one another. Due to the differences in the grading systems practiced by different private universities in Bangladesh, a subtle discrimination has grounded among the graduates seeking for jobs and higher education in foreign countries. In order to maintain quality education for all in the higher education level and for the preparation of the same level field for job competition and job preference, there is no other alternative of uniform grading systems in the Pharmacy education in Bangladesh. The UGC should strictly implement the uniform grading system approved and recommended by it to eliminate the discriminations.

We present an in-depth decompositionanalysis using physical indicators oftrends in Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the cementindustry in Brazil, China, South Korea andthe United States. Physical indicatorsallow a detailed analysis of intra-sectoraltrends, in contrast to the often usedmonetary indicators. We assess thecontribution of different factors affectingCO2 emissions in the cement industry,including change in product mix, efficiencyof power generation, changes in fuel mixand changes in energy efficiency. Thedecomposition results show that in allexamined countries, increased productionwas the main contributor to the increase intotal CO2 emissions. Energy-efficiencyimprovement is the most important factorthat led to the reduction of emissionintensities for all countries except Korea.For Korea, structural change in the productmix is the most important factorcontributing to the emission intensityreduction.

Hybrid ant systems for the dynamic facility layout problem

To meet the growing need for increased capacity in higher education, the government of Bangladesh encouraged development of private universities in 1992. Currently, there are sixty private universities1, thirty-four public universities2 and three international universities in Bangladesh3. Although the increased number of universities has provided opportunities, a debate has emerged over the quality at these institutions due to significant difference among these institutions. These inconsistencies in quality may be due to the lack of regulatory oversight and inefficiencies of the regulatory agencies of the government. The cost of education at private universities is high compared to significantly lower cost at public universities that are subsidized by the government. In spite of the higher cost, student satisfaction levels have not been higher at private universities in the past4. The work presented in this paper seeks to determine the quality of education in public and private universities in Bangladesh using student satisfaction as a measure of quality. It is well understood that student satisfaction measure may not be the only indicator of quality, but it can be considered as one of the important indicators. The survey questions were modified to adapt them to the context of Bangladesh. The twenty-two question survey results from private and public university students of Bangladesh were compared to determine the level of student satisfaction. The results of the current study were compared with the SSI data of US private and public universities. Results of the current study showed that the students in public universities of Bangladesh had lowest level of satisfaction and the private universities of Bangladesh had highest satisfaction The results derived from this data can be used by both public and private universities for improving quality in higher education. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v3i2.2886

Carolinians have come to doubt that public colleges are using their tax dollars wisely,... and this has made lawmakers reluctant to spend more on higher (Austin Gilbert of South Carolina's Commission on Higher Education, quoted in Schmidt, 1997, p. A26). Introduction South Carolina is one of many states to question whether higher education institutions operate efficiently. Government officials suggest that using performance measures and limiting state appropriations for higher education will control higher education costs and force institutions to provide an education more efficiently. For example, the 1999 Almanac issue of The Chronicle of Higher Education reported that 22 states provide appropriations to individual public colleges partly based on their meeting specific performance measures. Although state appropriations for higher education have generally increased in recent years due to a strong economy, it is a matter of time before the economy slows. In some cases, even a strong economy is not enough to increase state appropriations. For example, Governor Pataki's 1999 budget proposal sought reductions in state appropriations for the State University of New York and City University of New York systems. Appropriation reductions were sought to encourage what Governor Pataki called continued efforts to improve cost-efficiency and productivity (Chronicle of Higher Education's Daily Report, January 28, 1999). Why some universities are more efficient at providing public higher education to students and the relationship between efficiency and an institution's revenue structure are not adequately addressed in the literature. This article attempts to partly fill this gap with a three-step analysis. First, the changed structure of public university revenues between 1991 and 1995 is documented. Reductions (or limited growth) in state appropriations combined with increases in tuition revenue resulted in universities receiving a smaller proportion of revenues from state appropriations and a larger proportion from tuition. [1] The second step analyzes how this changed revenue structure influenced cost efficiency defined as the difference between actual costs and an estimated minimum cost. Attention is focused on whether public sector universities that received a larger proportion of funds from state appropriations were relatively more or less efficient than schools that received a larger share of funds from other sources such as tuition. [2] The third step examines how universities' cost efficiency and revenue structure changed between 1991 and 1995. In particular, this paper determines whether schools with a greater decline in the share of revenues from state appropriations improved efficiency relative to schools with a smaller decline in the share from state appropriations. Literature Review Before getting to these questions, we discuss some of the literature examining higher education costs (e.g., Adams, Hankins, & Schroeder, 1978; Brinkman, 1981; Brinkman & Leslie, 1986; Brovender, 1974; Hoenack, Weiler, Goodman, & Pierro, 1986; Koshal & Koshal, 1995; Tierney, 1980; Verry & Layard, 1975). Early studies concentrate on a single output in higher education, namely undergraduate students measured by full-time equivalent students, number of credit hours, or number of students. This is problematic, for colleges and universities have various different outputs. James (1978) noted that focusing only on undergraduate students and ignoring other higher education outputs, such as graduate education and research, overstates the cost of providing an undergraduate education and creates biases across types of institutions. Recent studies overcome this problem by considering universities to be multi-product firms producing undergraduate education graduate education, and research. Cohn, Rhine, and Santos (1989) use Higher Education General Information Survey data on more than 1,000 institutions to estimate cost functions for public and private schools. …

The need of additional universities in Indian higher education system to provide higher education to all eligible population of the country and the success of private university model in the USA tempted the Indian government to give permission to establish Private Universities in the country. Accordingly, based on section 22 of UGC act, the Indian government has allowed the state governments to establish private universities in the respective states. Presently there are 264 private universities in the country spread over 22 states. Due to non-availability of any financial support from the state and central governments, private universities are trying to sustain through their only strategy of service differentiation through 21st century curriculum and industry integrated programme design. In this paper, we have studied and compared some of the private universities in India in terms of their infrastructure, faculties, variety of courses, and fee structure of identified courses. We have also studied the performance scores given by NIRF, MHRD, Govt. of India for various criterions like Teaching, Learning & Resources, Research and Professional Practice, Graduation Outcomes, Outreach and Inclusivity, Public Perception. Based on the annual fee charged by the private universities established before 2010, we have identified three types of strategies which include low-fee – low quality, high-fee – high-quality, and low-fee – high quality strategies and analysed them based on the philosophy and background of such universities in general. We have also identified other innovative strategies offered by many private universities, in general, to differentiate themselves from publicly funded universities. The paper also contains some recommendations based on the observations to improve the quality, relevancy, and effectiveness of educational services and research contributions of private universities.

In recent years, China’s private higher education has developed rapidly, with a peak in both quantity and quality, Private higher education is an effecient complement to and an important part of higher education. The rise of private higher education diversifies China’s higher education. It effectively alleviated the contradiction between the demand for advanced talents in China’s economic construction and the shortage of existing higher education. However, private colleges and universities are still in a disadvantaged position compared with public universities in terms of resources, enrollment, teachers, scale, etc. Compared with public universities, the construction of the teaching staff of private colleges and universities is seriously lagging behind which is embodied in that the structure of teaching staff is unreasonable with young teachers as a main part and the academic leaders or backbone teachers very few, and the teaching staff is unstable with a high mobility. Those factors seriously discourage the development of private colleges and universities. Therefore, research on the satisfaction of employees in private universities, finding the unsatisfactory factors that employees have in their work can enable colleges and universities to find appropriate solutions, improve employee satisfaction and avoid the loss of advanced teachers and managers, thus improving teaching and management. This paper takes full-time teachers and management personnel at all levels in four Private Higher Education in Henan province as research objects to conduct in-depth investigation and analysis of employee satisfaction. Through the review of Employee Satisfaction Theory, the theoretical basis cited in this paper is clarified. According to the literature research, the factors affecting employee satisfaction of Private Higher Education grouped into two categories: demographic factors (gender, age, education, university working years, job title and position) and work related factors (the work itself, working environment, remuneration, leadership and management, working atmosphere, working pressure, interpersonal relationships and university management). Based on the influencing factors of employee satisfaction, the hypothesis and research model of this paper are proposed. The research methods employed in this research are literature method and questionnaire survey. The questionnaire is divided into two parts: the first part is about the demographic characteristics; the second part is about the employee satisfaction survey. Altogether 32 questions in 8 dimensions, namely the work itself, working environment, remuneration, leadership management, working atmosphere, working stress, interpersonal relationships and university management; SPSS22.0 was used to analyze the data, and the he results of descriptive statistics, T test, one-way variance, Pearson correlation, multiple linear regression and other analysis results are as follows: (1)The staff satisfaction in Chinese Private Higher Education is at an average level; (2)In the eight first-level dimensions, employees are satisfied with interpersonal relationships, working environment and working atmosphere. Low satisfaction in work itself, leadership management, university management, working pressure and remuneration; In the second dimension, employees are satisfied with the relationship with various groups and the campus environment, and are not satisfied with renumeration, performance appraisal system, learning and development opportunities; (3)There are significant differences in employee satisfaction in education background and years of service; (4)All eight dimensions have a positive correlation with employee satisfaction; (5)Leadership management, working atmosphere, university management and work itself contribute significantly to employee satisfaction.