Different Paths, Different Summits: A Model for Religious Pluralism (review)

Engages in a wide-ranging exploration of what we can learn from the study of ancient civilizations, which is relevant to fundamental problems, both intellectual and moral, that we continue to face today. How far is it possible to arrive at an understanding of alien systems of belief? Is it possible to talk meaningfully of 'science' and of its various constituent disciplines, 'astronomy', 'geography', 'anatomy', and so on, in the ancient world? Are logic and its laws universal? Is there one ontology—a single world—to which all attempts at understanding must be considered to be directed? When we encounter apparently very different views of reality, how far can that be put down to a difference in conceptions of what needs explaining, or of what counts as an explanation, or to different preferred modes of reasoning or styles of enquiry? Do the notions of truth and belief represent reliable cross-cultural universals? Are the discourses of human nature and of human rights universally applicable? What political institutions do we need to help secure equity and justice within nation states and between them? Lloyd provides compelling evidence that the science and culture of ancient Greece and China have much to offer contemporary debates in many fields of study.

Background: There are still many practitioners, academics and researchers who are bemused by the principles and practices of qualitative research. The second paper in this three part series on qualitative research explores the important question of research methodologies. Content: Focusing on four of the more common methodologies—phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography and discourse analysis—the article shows how each represents a distinctively different view of reality (a feature of qualitative research that was unpacked in the first article in the series). Conclusions: These methodologies are then used to highlight some of the fundamental methodological differences between quantitative and qualitative research. Having set down these principles, I move on, in the third article, to discuss qualitative methods of data collection and analysis.

The notion of sexist language, or sexism in language, is, as far as I know, relatively recent. It appears to have been elaborated within the feminist movement in the last few decades.2 The proponents of this notion sometimes place it within a more general philosophical context consisting of assumptions derived from Nietzsche, Freud, Heidegger, Lacan, Althusser, etc., and sometimes invoke, from a more specifically linguistic viewpoint, what is known as the 'Sapir-Whorf hypothesis'. This label refers to ideas about the relation between language and thought which belong to a tradition going back at least to Humboldt, have been discussed by one of the most acute linguists of our century, Edward Sapir, and have found a more extreme expression in the work of B. L. Whorf, an original and eccentric thinker, who was not a professional linguist (he trained as a chemical engineer, and worked for an insurance firm). Studying American Indian languages, and contrasting them with what he called Standard Average European, Whorf came to the conclusion that languages may embody different views of reality, and that, for instance, Einstein's theory of relativity would be more easily formulated in Hopi (an American Indian language, of the Uto-Aztecan group, spoken in Arizona) than in German. The fact that the theory of relativity was actually expressed in German and not in Hopi does not make Whorf's points less stimulating.

Health care research includes many studies that combine quantitative and qualitative methods. In this paper, we revisit the quantitative-qualitative debate and review the arguments for and against using mixed-methods. In addition, we discuss the implications stemming from our view, that the paradigms upon which the methods are based have a different view of reality and therefore a different view of the phenomenon under study. Because the two paradigms do not study the same phenomena, quantitative and qualitative methods cannot be combined for cross-validation or triangulation purposes. However, they can be combined for complementary purposes. Future standards for mixed-methods research should clearly reflect this recommendation.

This article deals with technology as it relates to strategy design. It addresses the different views of reality between general managers and the organization’s technologists. This becomes increasingly important in high levels of turbulence. It examines the role of the general management and technological myopia as major influencer in the decision-making process. The thrust of this article is on the assessment of gaps between management and technologists and methods to close them. The article completes with the role of management in managing and driving technological innovation while integrating technology strategy in the organization’s strategy.

Reflection on the scientific level of new media practices and systematization of a positive experience is impossible without identifying and describing the problem components and contradictions that characterize the modern informa­tion space in Russia or its particular regions. First of all, it determines the fact that the first decades of the 21st century marked the beginning of a new stage in the study of rapidly transforming media systems. Secondly, when studying the impact of these processes on the representatives of modern Russian society as a whole and its groups, the digital revolution assumes that not only the mo­bilization resources of social theories and actual practices are defined, but also predetermines the formation of a legal framework for the mass media, which must meet the requirements of time and the demands of society. The third part of the monograph “Mass Media as a Mediator of Communicative-Cultural Memory” is devoted to this problem. The legal field of journalism of the digital age and the legal aspect of the identity of Russians are considered in the context of their mutual influence. The axiological context of ethical and philosophical dominance in modern media texts and the analysis of the role of the media in maintaining positive ethnic identity has allowed the authors to consider several problematic nodes of actual practice at various levels of social dynamics. In particular, it has been proved that since it is through culture, as well as through media culture as a special type of culture, that the individual is socialized and society thus largely regulates the behaviour of individuals and groups, the consideration of culture as an Univer­sum opens wide prospects for research into the functioning of journalism as a social institution under the new conditions. The results of the sociological research carried out by the authors testi­fied that professional activity for the overwhelming number of respondents in conditions of active influence of the global network and possibilities of new information technologies became inseparable with personal intentions. They are reflected in their public discourse, the product of a more or less argumentative discussion of a fact, a problem situation, which is based on an openly broadcast text. It has been proved that modern practice allows the public discourse of a journalist, which influences the formation of primarily communicative memory of media audience representatives, to be differentiated into three levels: com­municative-event, communicative-containing and communicative-predictive. Today, mass media should be not only an information resource but also a platform (channel, tool) for presenting the whole range of opinions and de­veloping various initiatives of active representatives of this or that societies. Information activities of non-professionals in the media sphere, most often referred to as civic journalism, should in practice become an important factor in the development of conventional (contractual) and communication (dialogue) strategies. At the same time, the mythologization of reality, even via ethnic ste­reotypes broadcast by some media and bloggers, is a complex and controversial formation that manifests itself specifically at different levels of mass conscious­ness. It can contribute both to the emergence of new images, different views of reality, and the accumulation of incorrect opinions, false ideas, manifestations of aggression. The result is social, cultural, religious and political myths, sometimes even leading to various antisocial actions. Therefore, it is concluded that professional media activity requires from communicators, along with ethical and legal enlightenment and active life po­sition manifestation, the skills of creative (non-traditional, non-stereotypical) information expression in media texts.

Background There are still many practitioners, academics and researchers who are bemused by the principles and practices of qualitative research. The second paper in this three part series on qualitative research explores the important question of research methodologies. Content Focusing on four of the more common methodologies – phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography and discourse analysis – the article shows how each represents a distinctively different view of reality (a feature of qualitative research that was unpacked in the first article in the series). Conclusions These methodologies are then used to highlight some of the fundamental methodological differences between quantitative and qualitative research. Having set down these principles, I move on, in the third article, to discuss qualitative methods of data collection and analysis.

This guide accompanies the following article: Amir Dastmalchian, ‘The Epistemology of Religious Diversity in Contemporary Philosophy of Religion.’ Philosophy Compass 8/3 (2013): 298–308, doi:10.1111/phc3.12007 Author’s Introduction ‘Religious diversity’ is the term used to refer to the existence of a multitude of religious traditions. Religious diversity is now one of the major subjects of the philosophy of religion. Philosophical reflections on the topic of religious diversity can be split into: (a) first‐order reflections and (b) second‐order reflections. First‐order: matters directly arising from the phenomenon of religious diversity i.e. (a) the epistemology of religious beliefs, (b) concepts of the Ultimate, and (c) the possibility of salvation/liberation across religious traditions. Second‐order: categorising and assessing first‐order reflections. Terminology: second‐order reflections have produced the terminology of ‘exclusivism’, ‘inclusivism’, and ‘pluralism’. These terms can be combined with adjectives such as ‘epistemic’, ‘salvific’, ‘experiential’, ‘doctrinal’, ‘ethical’, etc. Epistemic exclusivism: only one particular religion is epistemically advantaged to the exclusion of all the other religions. Epistemic pluralism: more than one religion is epistemically advantaged. Author Recommends: Introductory Basinger, David. Religious Diversity: A Philosophical Assessment . Aldershot &amp; Burlington ( VT ) : Ashgate, 2002. A book‐length introduction to the topic of religious diversity in the philosophy of religion. Some of Basinger’s positions are debatable (such as restricting religious diversity to theistic religions). A key contribution of the book is a chapter on religious diversity in the context of teaching. Griffiths, Paul J. Problems of Religious Diversity . Oxford: Blackwell, 2001. A book‐length introduction to the topic of religious diversity in the philosophy of religion. Includes a brief Roman Catholic argument for inclusivism. King, Nathan. ‘Religious Diversity and its Challenges to Religious Belief.’ Philosophy Compass, 3.4 ( 2008 ) : 830‐853. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747‐9991.2008.00149.x/abstract A helpful overview of the terminology and key positions on religious diversity. Objections to doctrinal exclusivism are considered together with further issues for research. Quinn, Philip L. and Kevin Meeker, eds. The Philosophical Challenge of Religious Diversity . New York &amp; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. An anthology of fourteen important readings on religious diversity. All readings are contemporary with the exception of one reading by David Hume. The readings have been selected for the way they argue for individual responses to religious diversity and for the way in which they engage with each other. Meister, Chad, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. An anthology of thirty‐two surveys of religious diversity from an interesting range of perspectives. The surveys are grounded in historical, religious studies, philosophical, and sociological approaches to religious diversity. This anthology is noteworthy for its consideration of contemporary concerns, for example, globalisation, environmentalism, and feminism. Meister, Chad and Paul Copan, eds. Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion . 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2012. Part 3 of this anthology consists of eight survey articles on religious diversity. These articles include ‘Truth in Religion’, ‘Comparing Rival Religious Systems’, ‘Religious Pluralism’, ‘Inclusivism and Exclusivism’, ‘Interreligious Dialogue’, ‘Non‐theistic Conceptions of God’, ‘Mysticism Among the World’s Religions’, and ‘Death and the Afterlife’. Thune, Michael. ‘Religious Belief and the Epistemology of Disagreement.’ Philosophy Compass 5.8 (2010): 712–24. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747‐9991.2010.00314.x/abstract Discusses a burgeoning field in epistemology – disagreement – and its relevance to religious belief. Thune’s article is a good companion to the article associated with this teaching guide. Advanced Hick, John. An Interpretation of Religion: Human Responses to the Transcendent . London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. This text is not advanced in the sense that it is particularly difficult to read but rather in the sense that it offers a sustained argument for one particular response to religious diversity, namely, religious pluralism. Hick’s pluralism is not the only type of pluralistic response to the challenge of religious diversity but due to Hick’s prominence in discussions on religious diversity the work is of central importance. For a survey of alternative pluralist positions see Hick’s article in the Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion mentioned above. McKim, Robert. On Religious Diversity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Similar in scope to the works of Basinger and Griffiths listed above, this monograph is a little more challenging and draws upon the author’s work on religious ambiguity. </j

The subject of this study is the methodological approach used by Aldous Huxley to study religious experience and mystical experiences. The article pays special attention to the theoretical origins of this methodology, as well as the social and cultural context of its formation. The article examines how science, philosophy, and religion of that time contributed to the formulation of Aldous Huxley's methodological approach. The author of the article examines which principles and methods formed the basis of Huxley's methodology, how the principle of objectivity of scientific knowledge with the subjectivity of personal experience is consistent in the applied approach. The article also examines his experimental use of mescaline to explore the depths of human consciousness and search for a "divine foundation", analyzes the results and limitations of Huxley's methodological approach and his contribution to understanding the nature of religious experience. This article is based on methodological approaches such as biographical and comparative historical methods, as well as an analytical study of sources and their systematization. The work used a comprehensive analysis of Huxley's texts to identify key aspects of his worldview. The scientific novelty lies in the fact that a holistic reconstruction of Huxley's methodology used by him for the study of religious experience has been carried out. Based on sources, the author shows how it developed from the late 1920s to 1960. The article analyzes not only key works, but also little-known essays and lectures, some of which have not been published in Russian. Huxley's interest in religious experience stems from personal experiences and cultural context. His methodology includes philosophical, psychological, and anthropological aspects, focusing on the phenomenology of religious experience. Huxley conducts a comparative analysis of various religious traditions, identifying common features and a universal spiritual reality. He strives to integrate scientific methods with mystical ones based on critical analysis, facts and experimentation. In theoretical analysis, he juxtaposes binary categories such as body-mind and religion-magic, emphasizing the importance of bodily experience in spiritual enlightenment. Also, as an important conclusion, the strengthening of the body-oriented principle in understanding religious and mystical experience in the last decade of the thinker's life should be noted.

This study investigates how monotheistic religions depict God with masculine or feminine attributes, considering historical context. The issue arises from questioning the portrayal of a masculine God within these religions, influenced by a patriarchal socio-cultural backdrop. Instances mainly from Christianity and lesser from Judaism and Islam, the study analyzes the characteristics of religious theological language used in the depiction of God. In this context, we explore the linguistic challenge encountered by religious traditions when employing anthropomorphic language. Since the core issue revolves around expressing and labeling the divine, the paper initiates with a conceptual examination of God’s characterization as either masculine or feminine. In this analysis, tracing back historically, archaeological and anthropological evidence indicates that language used to describe God was initially predominantly feminine. Feminist perspectives contend that over time, particularly within monotheistic religions, this language has become masculine and that this historical shift has been a major factor in the social and cultural exclusion of women. Against this claim, the study aims to substantiate the claim that despite the effective historical dominance of the theological masculine language, the feminine divine image persists in both theistic and non-theistic traditions. Both the Holy Scriptures and early theological writings occasionally employ feminine language when discussing God, although less frequently than masculine language. Within this context, anthropomorphic depictions of God in the Holy Books of monotheistic religions—where God is perceived as an immaterial being—are interpreted metaphorically, analogically, or symbolically. In particular, the mystical traditions of these religions have emphasized feminine qualities more intensely in their depiction of the divine. They portray God not only as a father or male figure but also with feminine attributes, such as a mother, lover, or friend. These traditions contend that qualities like divine beauty and mercy find their fullest expression in women and the feminine manifestation of existence. Notably, the Nag Hammadi tradition, rooted in Jewish mysticism, highlights the feminine dimensions of the divine, emphasizing love and compassion. Medieval Christian mystics such as Meister Eckhart and Julian of Norwich also emphasized the feminine dimension of God in their experience of the divine. Similarly, within Islamic Sufism, influenced by the Our’an’s balance and harmony of tanzih(exoneratin God from human attributes) and tashbih (drawing similitude) the Ibn Arabi tradition, emphasizing the feminine portrayal of the divine. They recognized the divine presence within the feminine elements of creation. Additionally, a lesser-known figure, Molla al-Jaziri, dealt extensively with the theme of woman as a divine mirror. This study aimed aligns with the feminist theological approach, advocating for the reinterpretation of theological and religious language in order to liberate it from the dominance of a patriarchal language and reveal its feminine aspect. Additionally, study also suggests further research by examining specific time periods, approaches and individual scholars’ perspectives.

Religious experience and religious language, the two constituents of religious fact or phenomenon, are studied in this article from an anthropological and a theological point of view. As well as human experience is a means of relationship and apprehension of reality, religious experience is a means of relationship and apprehension of transcendence. Likewise, as well as human experience is mediated for its interpretation and expression by human language, religious experience is mediated for its interpretation and expression by religious language. This study pretends to be a contribution to a theological hermeneutics in sacramental key or, more precisely, a general or fundamental sacramentology, but also, and at the same time, contribution to an anthropological and theological hermeneutics of the religious fact in its two components: the religious experience and the language which interprets and expresses this experience.

This book provides an assessment of the value of religious experiences as evidence for religious beliefs. Going further than an ‘argument from religious experience’, the inquiry systematically addresses underlying philosophical issues such as the role of interpretation in experience, the function of models and metaphors in religious language, and the way perceptual experiences in general are used as evidence for claims about the world. The book examines several arguments from religious experience and, using contemporary and classic sources from the world religions, gives an account of the different types of experience. To meet sceptical challenges to religious experience, the book draws extensively on psychological and sociological as well as philosophical and religious literature, probing deeply into questions such as whether religious experiences are merely a matter of interpretation, whether there is irreducible conflict among religious experiences, and whether psychological and other reductionist explanations of religious experience are satisfactory. The book concludes that religious experiences, like most experiences, are most effective as evidence within a cumulative style of argument which combines evidence from a wide range of sources.

Elderhood is an emerging concept for making meaning in older age, often contextualized in spiritual but not religious traditions. But what kinds of frameworks for elderhood are woven into protestant religious contexts? This paper explores 943 texts written by Finnish older adults in study groups organized by a pensioners’ organization. A key finding is that religious language – known through religious songs and prayers learned by heart at school – offers a medium to explore and express their elderhood. The writers creatively use the rhythm and wordings of these textual patterns to position themselves as a group of older persons with a special contribution to make to society. These results will aid examining elderhood and its potential in various contexts where the concept might not be explicitly used. This examination potentially leads to new ways to support experiences of elderhood and thus to offer an alternative view to countering ageism.

This research focuses on the traditional Dayak belief systems, including their views on ancestor worship, religious systems, and worldviews. The Dayak's understanding of their belief system stems from imagination and attempts to relate their experiences to a greater power that governs the universe. The important thing about ancestral beliefs and this religious system is that nature does not exist on its own but that something has created it. They call this power Tamai Tingai, which is the center of their religious experience. Religious life is a theophanic experience that influences all Dayak human life. This paper aims to describe and analyze the concept of ancestral beliefs and religious systems as a way of life for the traditional Dayak community. This study uses phenomenological analysis and critical reading of the text using qualitative research methods. The research findings show that the Dayak people realize that religious expression through ancestor worship and religious systems is justified by human experience. In situations of helplessness, humans seek help and find it by connecting themselves to a transcendent existence.

The issue of religious tolerance is increasingly raised in a globalized world with societies becoming more and more religiously diverse and inhomogeneous. Religious tolerance can be defined as the practice of accepting others as acting in accordance with their religious belief system. Philosophers have recently begun to study more thoroughly the relationship between religious pluralism and religious (in)tolerance with a main focus on the epistemic question of whether the recognition of and reflection on religious pluralism might lead to greater religious tolerance. The major thrust of this idea is that any genuine reflection of a person about her epistemic peers adhering to other religions will weaken the person’s epistemic justificatory basis for believing that her own religious beliefs are better warranted than the religious beliefs of her peers. The rational consequence of the recognition of this justificatory fact, in turn, should lead to more religious tolerance and to a weakened dismissive attitude towards adherents of other religions. The main aim of this paper is to investigate the plausibility of this account against the background of existing empirical, in particular psychological literature: Does increased contact with adherents of other religious traditions indeed lead to more tolerance? How are we able to show a deeper understanding for people with different religious beliefs and to take on—at least partially—their perspective? What are potential psychological obstacles to these achievements? Resources from research on intergroup toleration, social identity-theories, developmental psychology and personality traits will be used for tackling these questions. This shall help to broaden the so far rather narrow epistemic philosophical perspective on religious pluralism and (in)tolerance by embedding it into the larger context of constitutive traits of the human psyche.