Distortions in memory for maps

Perceptual organization concerns the organization of people’s perception into meaningful, structured entities—often wholes containing parts, with specific interrelationships among the parts as well as specific relationships between the parts and the wholes. It embraces a wide variety of distinct processes, which often occur together in everyday life and lead to interesting perceptual experiences by their interactions. The best-known perceptual organization processes are perceptual grouping and figure-ground organization, which appear to be determined by characteristic principles or laws, such as grouping by proximity, similarity, good continuation, area, convexity, symmetry, and so forth. Other important phenomena of perceptual organization include perceptual multi-stability (i.e., the fact that the same stimulus can give rise to multiple competing percepts that switch over time), visual illusions, the role of reference frames, and the role of context. Gestalt psychology has contributed deep insights into the way people’s perception of the world is organized, although it has also been criticized for its emphasis on subjective experiences and its sometimes vague and non-quantitative descriptions of the Gestalt principles. Because perceptual organization essentially concerns visual awareness, however, phenomenology is needed to describe what is experienced. This ultimately remains the basis for research on perceptual organization even when it is aimed at quantifying the principles of perceptual organization and identifying the neural correlates or mechanisms underlying perceptual organization.

In five interleaved experiments, conducted with 94 observers, it is shown that organization of the visual field according to gestalt principles results in measurable spatial distortions. Using the principles of proximity, similarity, good continuation, and two types of closure, it was found that interior distances (within a perceptual unit or group) are underestimated relative to exterior distances. The relationship between these spatial distortions and the resultant perceptual organization are discussed.

A computational framework is presented to extract geometric structures and a region of interest from a monochrome image for the detection of man-made objects in a non-urban scene. The framework is based on the principles of perceptual organization. Several new techniques are developed to implement this framework. Examples using real complex images are presented to show the effectiveness of the approach.

The processes of perceptual organization and social categorization share the goal of simplifying and structuring the world, though they have traditionally been studied within separate branches of psychology. Drawing on embodied cognition, this perspective suggests that both processes stem from bodily experiences. Early sensorimotor experiences, such as being held in proximity or rocked in synchrony, may have shaped the principles of perceptual organization and provide the foundations for social categorization. To integrate these domains, a triadic embodied model is proposed, linking bodily experience, perceptual organization, and social categorization as dynamically interacting vertices. The model allows bidirectional influences, whereby each element can prime and reinforce the others, and may also involve activation of metaphorical concepts. It further explains how cultural context can bias these interconnections. The model situates social categorization along a continuum of representational depth, from shallow symbolic tagging to deep embodied simulation. While prior work has demonstrated dyadic links between bodily experience, perceptual organization, and social categorization, the present article explicitly integrates these domains in a unified model, offering new directions for understanding how people structure their physical and social world.

In 1912, Max Wertheimer published his paper on phi motion, widely recognized as the start of Gestalt psychology. Because of its continued relevance in modern psychology, this centennial anniversary is an excellent opportunity to take stock of what Gestalt psychology has offered and how it has changed since its inception. We first introduce the key findings and ideas in the Berlin school of Gestalt psychology, and then briefly sketch its development, rise, and fall. Next, we discuss its empirical and conceptual problems, and indicate how they are addressed in contemporary research on perceptual grouping and figure-ground organization. In particular, we review the principles of grouping, both classical (e.g., proximity, similarity, common fate, good continuation, closure, symmetry, parallelism) and new (e.g., synchrony, common region, element and uniform connectedness), and their role in contour integration and completion. We then review classic and new image-based principles of figure-ground organization, how it is influenced by past experience and attention, and how it relates to shape and depth perception. After an integrated review of the neural mechanisms involved in contour grouping, border ownership, and figure-ground perception, we conclude by evaluating what modern vision science has offered compared to traditional Gestalt psychology, whether we can speak of a Gestalt revival, and where the remaining limitations and challenges lie. A better integration of this research tradition with the rest of vision science requires further progress regarding the conceptual and theoretical foundations of the Gestalt approach, which is the focus of a second review article.

It has been argued that principles of perceptual organization play an important role in the representation of a visual stimulus and that elderly adults may be deficient in perceptual unit formation. The present study examined the extent to which the Gestalt principles of grouping by proximity and similarity predicted the formation of large perceptual units that could affect performance in a visual search task. The verbal reaction time to determine the presence or absence of a target letter in arrays of 1, 5, or 9 elements was determined for young (20 years) and elderly (69 years) adults. Both age groups could take advantage of the organization implied by Gestalt principles in finding a target in the context of a small implied group. The elderly adults, however, were not able to organize a single perceptual unit composed of eight elements. Thus, although the visual search performance of the age groups was similar, the elderly adults did yield evidence of a perceptual organization deficit.

The extent to which visual inference is shaped by attentional goals is unclear. Voluntary attention may simply modulate the priority with which information is accessed by the higher cognitive functions involved in perceptual decision making. Alternatively, voluntary attention may influence fundamental visual processes, such as those involved in segmenting an incoming retinal signal into a structured scene of coherent objects, thereby determining perceptual organization. Here we tested whether the segmentation and integration of visual form can be determined by an observer's goals, by exploiting a novel variant of the classical Kanizsa figure. We generated predictions about the influence of attention with a machine classifier and tested these predictions with a psychophysical response classification technique. Despite seeing the same image on each trial, observers' perception of illusory spatial structure depended on their attentional goals. These attention-contingent illusory contours directly conflicted with other, equally plausible visual forms implied by the geometry of the stimulus, revealing that attentional selection can determine the perceived layout of a fragmented scene. Attentional goals, therefore, not only select precomputed features or regions of space for prioritized processing, but under certain conditions also greatly influence perceptual organization, and thus visual appearance.

Perceptual grouping by common fate has been studied for more than one hundred years: visible stimulus elements that move together (e.g., with the same speed and direction) are perceptually grouped into a single entity distinct from its background. Yet other forms of common fate also exist. In the current study we evaluated the potential informativeness of common appearance and disappearance. In common appearance, a textured object that was not present in an initial view (which contained a textured background identical in nature to that of the object) suddenly appeared in a second view. In common disappearance, a textured object that was perfectly camouflaged in the initial view disappeared in a second view (revealing background texture that had previously been occluded). In both events in the current experiment, the rectangular object was not visible in either the first or second image -- nevertheless, the common appearance or disappearance of stimulus texture elements permitted the perception of object shape. Thirty younger and older adults effectively discriminated shape (horizontal versus vertical rectangles) defined by common appearance and disappearance. The duration of an interstimulus interval and age significantly modulated the visibility of stimulus objects defined by common appearance and disappearance.

Perceptual organization (PO) deficits have long been considered a hallmark of schizophrenia (SZ), reflecting disruptions in the integration of visual information. This systematic review critically evaluates the behavioral evidence for PO impairments in SZ and individuals with high schizotypal traits, focusing on three key mid-level processes: contour integration, perceptual grouping, and figure-ground segmentation. Forty-four studies were included, identified through a systematic search and evaluated for bias using the QUADAS-2 tool. Findings reveal robust and replicable deficits in contour integration among individuals with SZ, especially in those with disorganization symptoms, suggesting impaired lateral interactions in early visual areas. Perceptual grouping deficits were also prominent but appeared more sensitive to cognitive load and stimulus complexity, consistent with top-down integration failures. Figure-ground segmentation impairments were less consistently reported and often dependent on task demands, emerging more clearly under challenging conditions. In schizotypy, evidence of PO deficits was more variable. Some studies identified subtle impairments in contour integration and grouping, particularly under high attentional load or in individuals with disorganized traits, while others reported intact performance. The heterogeneity of methods across studies, particularly differences in stimulus type, complexity, and grouping cues, was a major limiting factor for cross-study comparisons. Findings from this review support a dimensional view of PO deficits, where specific symptom clusters, rather than diagnosis alone, predict perceptual dysfunction. PO impairments, particularly in contour integration, may serve as sensitive cognitive markers for early detection and targeted intervention in SZ-spectrum disorders.

We report three experiments investigating the ability of undergraduate college students to comprehend 2 x 2 "interaction" graphs from two-way factorial research designs. Factorial research designs are an invaluable research tool widely used in all branches of the natural and social sciences, and the teaching of such designs lies at the core of many college curricula. Such data can be represented in bar or line graph form. Previous studies have shown, however, that people interpret these two graphical forms differently. In Experiment 1, participants were required to interpret interaction data in either bar or line graphs while thinking aloud. Verbal protocol analysis revealed that line graph users were significantly more likely to misinterpret the data or fail to interpret the graph altogether. The patterns of errors line graph users made were interpreted as arising from the operation of Gestalt principles of perceptual organization, and this interpretation was used to develop two modified versions of the line graph, which were then tested in two further experiments. One of the modifications resulted in a significant improvement in performance. Results of the three experiments support the proposed explanation and demonstrate the effects (both positive and negative) of Gestalt principles of perceptual organization on graph comprehension. We propose that our new design provides a more balanced representation of the data than the standard line graph for nonexpert users to comprehend the full range of relationships in two-way factorial research designs and may therefore be considered a more appropriate representation for use in educational and other nonexpert contexts.

The role of neuronal excitability, allocation to an engram and memory linking in the behavioral generation of a false memory in mice

While predominant models of visual word form area (VWFA) function argue for its specific role in decoding written language, other accounts propose a more general role of VWFA in complex visual processing. However, a comprehensive examination of structural and functional VWFA circuits and their relationship to behavior has been missing. Here, using high-resolution multimodal imaging data from a large Human Connectome Project cohort (N = 313), we demonstrate robust patterns of VWFA connectivity with both canonical language and attentional networks. Brain-behavior relationships revealed a striking pattern of double dissociation: structural connectivity of VWFA with lateral temporal language network predicted language, but not visuo-spatial attention abilities, while VWFA connectivity with dorsal fronto-parietal attention network predicted visuo-spatial attention, but not language abilities. Our findings support a multiplex model of VWFA function characterized by distinct circuits for integrating language and attention, and point to connectivity-constrained cognition as a key principle of human brain organization.

Paradoxical perception of object identity in visual motion

Photography, as a visual art, is closely linked to the complex processes of human inner activities. This paper explores how psychological principles subtly influence photography creation and photo appreciation. In photographic images, Gestalt theory, visual perception mechanisms and neuroaesthetics play crucial roles. It analyzes the effect of the basic laws of visual perception on photographic composition and aesthetic expression, revealing the in-depth dialogue between creative behaviors and internal psychological responses. Mastering the psychological mechanisms of visual perception can not only enhance the artistic appeal and communication effect of photographic works, but also enable people to perceive and understand the world from a clearer perspective. This lays a psychological foundation for the theoretical breakthrough and practical innovation of photography. Gestalt principles of perceptual organization, such as the principle of figure-ground, provide a scientific basis for photographic composition; the principles of closure and simplification improve cognitive efficiency and enhance aesthetic feelings; the principle of similarity enriches the sense of complexity and stimulates the audience's interest in exploration. Visual perception itself is regarded as the interaction result of bottom-up sensory information processing and top-down cognitive framework application, which is deeply marked by the respective psychological maps of creators and viewers. Neuroaesthetics further uncovers the secret that excellent photographic works achieve a balance between predictive error and cognitive reward at the neural level. The research finds that photographic creation is itself a powerful psychological construction activity. Through visual storytelling, it helps individuals organize fragmented experiences, express hidden emotions and construct a network of meanings for their self-world. From the perspective of academic theory and practical application, this paper outlines a photography creation framework based on the principles of visual cognition, providing a unique methodological guidance from the psychological perspective for photography education, creation and criticism.

Good continuation is a fundamental principle of perceptual organization that guides the grouping of parts based on how they should succeed one another within coherent wholes. Despite the general language that was used by the Gestalt psychologists in phrasing this principle, computational work has focused almost exclusively on the study of curve-like structures. Here we offer for the first time, a rigorous generalization of good continuation to arbitrary visual structures that can be abstracted as scalar functions over the image plane. The differential geometry of these structures dictates that their good continuation should be based both on their value and on the geometry of their level sets, which yield a coupled system of equations solvable for a formal model. We exhibit the resulting computation on shading and intensity functions, demonstrating how it eliminates spurious measurements while preserving both regular structure and singularities. Related implementations could be applied to color channels, motion magnitude, and disparity signals