Editorial on being beholden to other professions.

Behavior analysis is the underclass of psychology. It is under-funded, under-taught, and underappreciated. A lot is happening that is positive, but just beneath the surface, there are grave dangers lurking that could significantly worsen our already poor status. I prefer to believe that most of these dangers are things we can control by our own behavior (itself a rather behavioral idea), and I offer this list of dangers in that spirit. As someone once said: if you always do what you always did, you'll always get what you always got. Behavior analysts need to appreciate the following six dangers and adapt to them. LOSS OF MISSION Behavior analysis was initially strategically committed to the field of animal learning, but from the beginning its ultimate purpose was an understanding of complex human behavior: importance of a science of behavior derives largely from the possibility of an eventual extension to human affairs (Skinner, Behavior of Organisms, 1938, p. 441). In the early decades that was merely a promise, but the arrival of applied behavior analysis turned it into a program. Over the years, however, both basic and applied behavior analysis have narrowed and that original vision is being lost. Applied behavior analysis is gradually becoming a subfield of developmental disabilities, as a glance at a recent issue of JABA will confirm. The depth of the risk this creates is covered over by methodological rigor and applied impact within that narrow domain. Basic behavior analysis clings largely to narrow and precise questions of self-stimulatory interest in the animal laboratory, even while animal laboratories are being closed one by one, and areas of research within behavior analysis are being opened up that require human research. The depth of the problem is covered over by the productivity of a few major behavioral laboratories and the emergence of a handful of international labs, where protection from political winds have allowed the old seeds to grow a few new sprouts. In some ways, all of the other dangers I list can be traced back to the following core concern. Behavior analysis was always a carom shot. Instead of approaching human complexity directly, it tried to develop conceptual tools based on simple behaviors in simple contexts with small non-human animals, and then to apply these to an analysis of virtually every form of complex human behavior. It was a bold and even slightly preposterous idea, and yet it was one that worked far beyond what anyone had a right to expect. Now, however, we seem to be on the verge of forgetting what the mission was in the first place. Many basic behavior analysts have begun to believe that basic behavior analysis is a subfield of animal learning or (perhaps worse) behavioral biology. Where are the experimental analyses of emotion, friendship, sexuality, health, reasoning, humor, intelligence, and so on? Interpretation is not enough--we need an experimental analysis of such behaviors. Without the basic account, applied behavior analysts either ignore these areas or build common sense approaches to them. TOOL POLISHING No field so enjoys principles as does behavior analysis. Principles of behavior are ways of speaking about the prediction and influence of the historically and currently situated actions of organisms that are precise, broadly applicable, and coherent in terms of the larger fabric of science. Principles are the intellectual tools of analysis. They are not, however, ends in themselves. Sometimes behavior analysts are like the watchmakers who decided to make a set of extremely fine tools before actually making some complicated new watches. Forgetting what the tools were for, the talented watchmakers did not build the watches and display them in a glass cabinet, but instead put the tools themselves in that cabinet, taking them out only to polish them and to show how they work. Basic behavior analysts are especially prone to this error. …

For thousands of years, societies actively practiced the oppression, persecution, and dehumanization of sexual and gender minority (SGM) people (e.g., lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer individuals). Rekers and Lovaas'(1974) study is part of that history within behavior analysis. Following requests for retraction, the Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and LeBlanc (2020) issued a formal Expression of Concern about the work. Continued conversation and debate have followed. First, we contextualize debate around retraction of Rekers and Lovaas and the history of behavior analysts' work on SGM issues. Second, we propose 5 steps that leaders in behavior analysis can take with relative immediacy, and we describe 5 research areas that individual behavior analysts could pursue. We conclude that behavior analysts can contribute much toward the liberation of SGM individuals if we begin to bring our science to bear on pressing, socially significant issues facing SGM communities.

There is an old Chinese curse that says you live in exciting and we as clinical psychologists are certainly living in exciting times these days. Most of us are aware of the increasing pressure community-based clinical psychologists are experiencing, although we are not necessarily sensitive to the impact this pressure is having on those practitioners or on our field. In large part, many of the changes and challenges we are facing are byproducts of the increasing financial limitations and time restrictions being place on community-based clinical psychologists and it has become apparent that there are a number of changes ahead that will greatly impact the field as we know it. Clinical behavior analysis has much to contribute to the field. On a fundamental level, we have the strength of an empirically grounded theory and a lengthy history of research demonstrating effective clinical work. Additionally, our historical roots in pragmatism allow for the adaptation and integration of techniques from other branches of clinical psychology, not traditionally seen as behavioral. We will need to be aware of the current context, however, if we are to effectively participate in the transition clinical psychology is undergoing. In addition, there are number of obstacles which make it difficult for CBA to be a part of this process; some of the variables controlling these trends are in our hands. First there is our isolation from other branches of psychology. We need to spend more time talking to clinical psychologists from alternative theoretical orientations. This is true for both academic psychologists and clinical behavior analysts. I work in a department of anesthesiology, a somewhat unusual setting for a clinical psychologists, and my various roles in the medical school are such that I have a foot in the clinical camp and a foot in the ivory towers of academia. In trying to balance these contingencies, it has become apparent to me that there is a schism between what academic clinicians are doing and what community-based clinicians are doing. If that schism grows, we may find that community-based clinical psychologists will pay less and less attention to the research we produce. There is already a general attitude ex- pressed by many of the clinical psychologists I encounter that much of what we do as researchers is not relevant to what they do as clinicians. It is vital that we attend to this issue. On a more practical level, we as clinical behavior analysts need to participate in dialogues with other clinicians if we want to play a role in the changes psychology is already undergoing. As CBA is largely performed by academic psychologists at this point, we don't often consider our role in the economic marketplace. Since the marketplace is largely oriented toward cognitive-behavioral therapy, it is wise for us to plan specifically how CBA will fit into the future marketplace. This has implications for attracting future behavior analysts into the field. Although applied behavior analysis has been highly successful in our work with the developmentally disabled and in closed communities/hospital settings, many have been reluctant to move into settings in which our influence over the functional contingencies is more limited and relies heavily on verbal and rule-governed behavior. Despite pioneering early work in the outpatient arena by Kanfer and Saslow (1965, 1966), Ferster (1973), Krasner (1978, 1988), and Rachlin (1988), the role of functional analysis in the outpatient treatment session and a more molar view of a client's life were largely unexplored. The more traditional treatment areas for behavior analysts do not represent the typical setting in which most clinical psychologists practice and when these behavioral treatments appear, they are similar to cognitive treatments (e. …

How to Think Like a Behavior Analyst is a revolutionary resource for understanding complex human behavior and making potentially significant quality of life improvements. Behavior analysts offer a worldview of the human condition different than almost any other professional perspective. To a behavior analyst, human behavior is largely learned and subject to change if the right variables are put into play. This is an empowering outlook, providing an opportunity for individuals to analyze the actions of those around them and an understanding of why others exhibit such behavior. Practical, clear, and direct, this book addresses basic questions such as how behavior analysis is different from psychotherapy, what analysis involves, and the meaning of evidence-based treatment. A chapter on Applications presents tips on using behavioral procedures to improve lives and deal with others, and articulates how behavioral procedures are used in community settings. In question and answer format, the text thoroughly covers 50 frequently asked questions about behavior analysis in an educational and entertaining manner. It was developed out of questions raised by students in behavior analysis classes over the last 35 years, as well as questions raised by consumers of behavior analysis services. This text is written for all professionals concerned with behavior, including undergraduate students in psychology and behavior analysis, parents, teachers, employers, and employees. The book can easily be used as a supplement to primary texts in introductory psychology courses, and the exercises that follow each question can be used to stimulate lively discussion in role-play and other active learning situations.

The article “There’s a Policy for That: A Comparison of the Organizational Culture of Workplaces Reporting Incidents of Sexual Harassment” (Hertzog, Wright, & Beat, 2008, this volume) explores organizational variables related to reports of sexual harassment and other negative behaviors in organizations. The paper considers relatively new ground for behavior analysts in terms of broad organizational assessment and exploratory analyses of work contexts. Extending and integrating these analyses of organizational contexts with behavior analyses would be interesting, challenging, and provocative. Behavior analysis rests on accurate measurement of individual’s behavior and experimental analysis of environmental variables that determine functional relationships between behavior and environments. A few key concepts such as reinforcement and stimulus control are elaborated to explain a great deal of behavior. Behavior analysis has shown in multiple replications that all sorts of targeted behaviors in organizations can be altered by practical adjustments of reinforcement contingencies and contextual variables (Daniels & Daniels, 2006). A general observation is that behavior is as complex as the contexts that generate and maintain it. A methodology for very large scale organizational assessment is under-developed in behavior analysis and the complexities of organizational environments are perhaps limited in scope to evaluations of features of the individual’s local environment and learning history. Possible connections across levels of inquiry from broad surveys of organizational climate and the types of more molecular organizational behavior analyses conducted within behavior analysis may show interplay and enhance both methodologies. Exploration of the National Organization Survey (NOS) provides an interesting high altitude window into organizational settings, and Hertzog and colleagues provide and describe a molar level perspective on organizational climate that might influence behaviors such as sexual harassment and incivility. These are important topics not often addressed by behavior analysts although work is beginning in this area. No direct observations of organizational variables or dependent variables are reported so the extent to which the reported measures match actual events is undetermined. Correspondence between what people say

This paper presents the author's view of why the promise for education visualized by early behavioral researchers is as yet unrealized. It points out that behavior analysis has had an important impact on special education but has had much less influence on teaching practice in regular classrooms. This is not seen as the fault of educators who have failed to embrace procedures developed by behavior analysts. Rather, the author contends, behavior analysts have failed to develop procedures that fit the ecology of the regular classroom. Those developed often require too much additional effort thereby punishing those who attempt their use. Another factor hindering widespread adoption is that behavior analysts have failed to disseminate their procedures and have not participated widely in undergraduate training of teachers. The paper concludes by noting that our success in special education provides a model for behavior analysts interested in regular education. By developing procedures that result in increased academic performance for entire classrooms without punishing the teachers who implement them, by making those procedures available commercially and by publishing in journals teachers read, and finally by participating more widely in undergraduate training, the unfulfilled dream of what behavior analysis has to offer education can be achieved.

Across many countries in Europe, the last decade has seen a rapid increase in the number of early intervention programmes for children with autism based on applied behaviour analysis, and a related growth in demand for competent behaviour analyst practitioners. There has also been a rapid growth in university-based courses that are focused solely on behaviour analysis, and these have all aligned their curriculum with the Behavior Analyst Certification Board task list. We describe the context of these developments and discuss some of the ways courses have been developed and some of the future challenges to be faced in developing an international profession of behaviour analysis. These have been positive moves for behaviour analysis in Europe. Now there is a solid foundation to continue this work, and to ensure that behaviour analysts play a central role in helping those who need their expertise.

At its core, productive collaboration between speech-language pathologists and behavior analysts requires effective communication between both parties. Successful communication can be gained in par...

Readers of Behavior and Social Issues will likely find this an interesting little book. It is 100 word processed pages long, not formally typeset, and is in part a collection of the author's previously published essays which appeared in The Behavior Analyst. Two reciprocal themes are present: how behavior analysts and humanists have interacted with each other in print, and how behavior analysts and commentators on utopian writing have had similar exchanges. As Newman has ably argued at greater length elsewhere (Newman, 1992), to a great extent, behavior analysis is the application of humanistic philosophy. Unfortunately influential segments within the humanistic camp are either unfamiliar with, or reject, the compelling parallels between the two fields, and behaviorism has fared less well at the pens of the humanists than the latter have at those of the former. One thing I learned from this book is that humanists, like members of many disciplines, can be divided into hard and soft varieties, with the former stressing reason, science, and critical thinking, (materialists and realists, in a philosophical sense) and the latter holding the view that humanity is a more elevated aspect of the universe than can be accounted for by science. Most (but not all) of the criticisms of behaviorism come from the latter group. Behaviorists (notably Skinner) have contributed numerous constructive applications to the literature on utopian cultures. Regrettably, commentators on this literature have often chosen to interpret these contributions as either satire, as dystopian, or in the worst case as the foundation for a totalitarian state ruled by skilled behavioral manipulators, a regime made more pernicious by the fact that

The purpose of this paper is to present to a community of behavior specialists, an overview of the subdiscipline of Organizational Behavior Management (OBM) in three aspects. First, OBM is a sub-branch of the larger field of Applied Behavior Analysis. It also has two other aspects: it can complement the traditional set of skills useful to behavior analysts or be one of the alternative careers for them. Behavior specialists predominantly, and especially in Poland, teach populations with special needs. Whether this is in special education, social assistance or select areas of health care, with young children with autism or adults with intellectual disability, this is where most behavior analysts work. At the same time, they often need to skillfully cooperate in teams, sometimes manage them or instruct people other than those with whom they are usually in contact, such as new team members, parents, and other specialists. OBM can be seen as a supplementary background that answers these needs. It is also a possible alternative career path, with a distinct client base and flagship journal, as well as specific procedures in behavior analysis, experts in the field and specialisms. Different client populations, variations in instruction techniques and knowledge of response generalization all point to that conclusion that traditional behavior analysts might be largely at a disadvantage in the area covered by OBM: that of a management and team leading and training typically developing clients. Behavior analysts require a background in OBM, otherwise they might "reinvent the OBM wheel" or - which is worse - apply their experiences one-to-one with special populations and bring with them harmful assumptions.

The emergence of positive behav-ior support (PBS) has presented somechallenges and opportunities for ap-plied behavior analysis. In a recentreview and critique of positive behav-ior support, Johnston, Foxx, Jacob-son, Green, and Mulick (2006) ac-knowledge that the success of PBS ingarnering support in schools, agen-cies that service individuals with de-velopmental disabilities, and stateand federal agencies, and suggestsome behaviors to be emulated byapplied behavior analysis in order togarner similar support. However,they recommend that PBS shouldnot be embraced by behavior analystsbecause it poses a threat to the fieldand is less effective than appliedbehavior analysis. Before this recom-mendation is embraced by behavioranalysts, it is important to considerthe ramifications of a split betweenPBS and behavior analysis, particu-larly given that PBS has its origins inbehavior analysis and is conceptual-ized by prominent adherents of thePBS model to be a type of orextension of applied behavior analy-sis (Dunlap, 2006; Horner, 2000). Ipropose that PBS should not bedismissed but should be viewed asan opportunity by the field of appliedbehavior analysis to reach its goal oflarge-scale adoption. A continuedstrong relation between PBS andbehavior analysis may actually ac-complish the broadest disseminationand adoption of effective behavioraltechnology. It will also benefit PBSby keeping it grounded in the con-ceptual system that fostered its de-velopment.PBS is clearly still in its formativestages; in fact the executive board ofthe Association for Positive BehaviorSupport currently is working to de-velop a comprehensive definition ofPBS and to define the roles for theorganization (C. Anderson, personalcommunication, November 2, 2006).As is true in any organization—eventhe Association for Behavior Analy-sis—different members may espousedifferent perspectives on issues suchas the relation between PBS andother perspectives, training models,and so on. This in itself has been thesource of many challenges, and per-haps misunderstandings, for those inthe behavior analysis community.For example, Johnston et al. (2006)emphasize the negative views of PBSresearchers toward behavior analysis.However, many leaders, trainers, andresearchers in PBS have a favorableview of behavior analysis, considerthemselves to be behavior analysts,and continue to publish in behavioraljournals such as the Journal ofApplied Behavior Analysis and TheBehavior Analyst. Thus, although thissituation has been viewed pessimisti-cally by Johnston et al., I believe thatthere are significant grounds forhaving an optimistic view about thefuture relation between PBS andapplied behavior analysis. BecausePBS is in its formative stages and isrooted in behavior analysis, the field

We examined if manualized cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) was more effective than Treatment As Usual (TAU) for clinically depressed adolescents within routine care. This multisite Randomized controlled trail included 88 clinically depressed adolescents (aged 12–21 years) randomly assigned to CBT or TAU. Multiple assessments (pre-, post treatment and six-month follow-up) were done using semi-structured interviews, questionnaires and ratings and multiple informants. The primary outcome was depressive or dysthymic disorder based on the KSADS. Completers, CBT (n = 19) and TAU (n = 26), showed a significant reduction of affective diagnoses at post treatment (76% versus 76%) and after six months (90% versus 79%). Intention-to-treat analyses on depressive symptoms showed that 41.6% within CBT and 31.8% within the TAU condition was below clinical cut-off at post treatment and after six-months, respectively 61.4% and 47.7%. No significant differences in self-reported depressive symptoms between CBT and TAU were found. No prediction or moderation effects were found for age, gender, child/parent educational level, suicidal criteria, comorbidity, and severity of depression. We conclude that CBT did not outperform TAU in clinical practice in the Netherlands. Both treatments were found to be suitable to treat clinically referred depressed adolescents. CBT needs further improvement to decrease symptom levels below the clinical cut-off at post treatment.

Consumers of services provided by a number of behavior analysts include adults with developmental disabilities. A survey by the Association of Professional Behavior Analysts indicated that approximately one third of their membership respondents work with this consumer population (APBA 2009). Although behavior analysts work with adults who have developmental disabilities in a variety of settings, one of the most common is congregate or center-based day programs. Center-based programs (e.g., day habilitation facilities, sheltered workshops) represent the most common day service setting for adults with developmental disabilities despite a current philosophical and professional emphasis on promoting more community-integrated services such as supported employment (Wehman 2011). The number of center-based programs also has been increasing in recent years (Dague 2012). Center-based, adult day programs are intended to provide a variety of services such as vocational training, paid work opportunities (e.g., sheltered work tasks), leisure activities, and general skills training. Across the various services, a fundamental purpose is to enhance independent functioning among the adult consumers (Parsons et al. 2008). However, these settings have received noted criticism concerning the quality of services provided (Cimera 2011; Dague 2012; Wehman et al. 2001) and specifically due to ineffectiveness in actually promoting consumer independence (Parsons et al. 2008). The recent increase in behavior analyst practitioners around the USA (Critchfield 2011) could represent a significant opportunity to improve the degree to which consumer independence is promoted in adult services. Although there has been a relative lack of behavioral research in adult day programs (Parsons et al. 2004), and especially compared to other settings (e.g., schools) and populations (e.g., children with disabilities), the research that has occurred suggests that behavior analysts have much to offer. To illustrate, recent applications of behavior analysis technology within adult day programs have demonstrated effective means of training skills for working productively in community jobs (Lattimore et al. 2008), participating in age-appropriate leisure activities (Jerome et al. 2007), and acquiring daily living skills (Parsons et al. 2008). For behavior analysts who work with adult day programs and strive to help promote consumer independence, a common occurrence within these programs may warrant special attention. Specifically, staff in adult services are often observed to perform important tasks for agency consumers in contrast to teaching or otherwise encouraging the consumers to perform the tasks themselves. Observations of work activities in center-based programs have indicated, for example, that staff frequently complete a major portion of the tasks that adults with severe disabilities are expected and paid to complete (Parsons et al. 2001). Agency staff likewise often perform routine activities of daily living for consumers (Felce et al. 2002). One explanation why staff perform necessary tasks for individuals with developmental disabilities in contrast to teaching or encouraging consumers to perform the tasks is that staff believe it is easier and less time consuming to complete the tasks themselves (Guess et al. 2008). Despite this and other potential explanations, there is general agreement that when staff perform necessary tasks for people with developmental disabilities, individual growth and development is impeded (Guess et al. 2008). Relatedly, a learned helplessness phenomenon is considered to result that encourages general passivity and dependence (Cannella-Malone et al. 2011; Felce et al. 2002). In light of concerns with promoting consumer independence in adult services, we have been engaged in applied research on ways to enhance the independent functioning of adults with developmental disabilities in day program settings. To date, our research has focused on training agency staff how to carry out individualized teaching procedures (e.g., Parsons et al. 2013), design job tasks to promote independent work (Parsons et al. 1999; Parsons et al. 2002), and prompt and reinforce engagement in scheduled activities (Parsons et al. 2004). In conducting such research, as well as performing normative observations in adult day programs in a number of states (Reid et al. 2001), we have observed one particular situation in which staff frequently perform tasks for individual consumers that has not been specifically addressed: routine, transition-related activities. That is, there appears to be a common tendency for staff to perform tasks for consumers during activities that represent transitions between formal instruction and/or paid work duties (e.g., when one work task is completed and materials are replaced for a new work task, preparations are made for consumers to enter or leave an activity site, during snack and break times). Consequently, an additional means of promoting consumer independence in adult services would be to reduce staff completion of transition-related routines and increasing consumer completion of the activities. The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate a systematic approach for reducing staff completion of routine, transition-related activities for adults in a day program. The goal was to demonstrate a practical process that behavior analysts could apply when working with adult services to further promote independence among adults with developmental disabilities.

Ainda que o altruísmo pareça incompatível com os princípios da Análise do Comportamento, analistas do comportamento estudam esse fenômeno de diversos modos. Esta pesquisa sistematiza artigos analítico-comportamentais sobre o altruísmo. Uma busca foi realizada nas bases de dados PsycINFO, IndexPsi e Scielo, e na Revista Brasileira de Terapia Comportamental e Cognitiva, Revista Brasileira de Análise do Comportamento e na Perspectivas em Análise do Comportamento. As palavras altruísmo e altruísta foram combinadas com termos relacionados à Análise do Comportamento. Foram selecionados e analisados 16 artigos. Os resultados apontaram um maior número de pesquisas básicas do que estudos teóricos e aplicados, com aumento nas publicações a partir de 2001. A discussão sobre altruísmo também acompanha outros debates, principalmente relacionados ao comportamento molar, autocontrole, cooperação e a Teoria Comportamental dos Jogos. Esse aumento das publicações nas últimas décadas sugere a relevância do tema e a possibilidade de ser abordado pela Análise do Comportamento.

The Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts (2020) guides our practice and our professional responsibilities, and some certificants of the BACB may experience possible conflict between engaging in ethical practice and organizational policies at their place of employment (Greeny et al. Behavior Analysis: Research & Practice, 22(4), 368-381, 2022). An ethics coordinator (Brodhead & Higbee, Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5(2), 82-88, 2012), ethics committee (Cox, Behavior Analysis in Practice, 13(4), 939-949, 2020), or ethics network (LeBlanc et al., Behavior Analysis in Practice, 13(4), 905-913, 2020) could help mitigate such conflict. In this article, we described the formation of our organizational ethics network, based on the network developed by LeBlanc et al. (Behavior Analysis in Practice, 13(4), 905-913, 2020). We also reported on the use of our ethics hotline during the first year of the network, showcasing the possible cross-level and cross-departmental collaboration with occasional organizational change that occurred related to situations submitted to the ethics hotline. We concluded with our reflections and considerations for other practitioners or organizations who want to establish an ethics network.