Effects of Implicit Memory on Memory-Based versus Stimulus-Based Brand Choice

Category accessibility as implicit memory

In the absence of explicit memories such as the recall and recognition of intraoperative events, memory of auditory information played during general anesthesia has been demonstrated with several tests of implicit memory. In contrast to explicit memory, which requires conscious recollection, implicit memory does not require recollection of previous experiences and is evidenced by a priming effect on task performance. The authors evaluated the effect of a standardized anesthetic technique on implicit memory, first using a word stem completion task, and then a reading speed task in a subsequent study. While undergoing lumbar disc surgery, 60 patients were exposed to auditory materials via headphones in two successive experiments. A balanced intravenous technique with propofol and alfentanil infusions and a nitrous oxide-oxygen mixture was used to maintain adequate anesthesia. In the first experiment, 30 patients were exposed randomly to one of the two lists of 34 repeated German nouns; in the second experiment, 30 patients were exposed to one of two tapes containing two short stories. Thirty control patients for each experiment heard the tapes without receiving anesthesia. All patients were tested for implicit memory 6-8 h later: A word stem completion task for the words and a reading speed task for the stories were used as measures of implicit memory. The control group completed the word stems significantly more often with the words that they had heard previously, but no such effect was found in the anesthetized group. However, both the control and patient groups showed a decreased reading time of about 40 ms per word for the previously presented stories compared with the new stories. The patients had no explicit memory of intraoperative events. Implicit memory was demonstrated after anesthesia by the reading speed task but not by the word stem completion task. Some methodologic aspects, such as using low frequency words or varying study and test modalities, may account for the negative results of the word stem completion task. Another explanation is that anesthesia with propofol, alfentanil, and nitrous oxide suppressed the word priming but not the reading speed measure of implicit memory. The reading speed paradigm seems to provide a stable and reliable measurement of implicit memory.

Chapter 10 Implicit learning and memory

Encoding and retrieval are two important phases of memory.Encoding produces memory engraved and retrieval reactivates previously encoded information.The approach to the relationship between encoding and retrieval is meaningful for the better understanding of the nature of memory.As for explicit memory,the relation of encoding and retrieval has been investigated by many researchers who have found out that the performance of a secondary task during encoding reduced the later memory performance,but the division of the attention in the same way during retrieval had virtually no effect on memory performance,which indicated an asymmetry between encoding and retrieval processes.With respect to implicit memory,an asymmetry was also found in one of our previous studies(Meng Guo,2006),but the asymmetry is somewhat different from that in explicit memory,that is,the performance of a concurrent task during encoding had no effect on later task performance,but interference during retrieval disrupted priming,and reduced task performance.In order to clarify the issues we conducted an ERP experiment.The experiment was conducted with 16 undergraduate students as subjects and Chinese characters as stimuli.The experiment adopted a study-to-test paradigm,in which participants performed a "shallow"(color) study task or a "deep"(pleasant) study task,followed by either a lexical decision(implicit) test(section 1) or a recognition(explicit) test(section 2).In interference task participants were asked to account the total number of "+" in a regulated orientation which appeared with a word,and was performed concurrently with either the encoding or the retrieval phase of the memory task for encoding interference condition or retrieval interference condition.The results showed that:(1) the effects of interference to encoding in implicit memory test were different from that to retrieval.Interference during encoding had virtually no effect on N400 or P600 old/new ERP components,but interference during retrieval significantly reduced N400 old/new and P600 old/new components,which abolished behavior priming.(2) The effects of interference to encoding on ERP components in explicit memory test were different from that to retrieval.Interference during encoding had significant influence on later P600 old/new effect,but interference during retrieval did not produce such effect.The results confirmed the finding of Meng Guo(2006),that is,interference during encoding had effect on explicit memory,but left implicit memory intact.Interference during retrieval affected implicit memory,but had little effect on explicit memory.So the relationship between encoding and retrieval was different between implicit and explicit memory,thus providing further evidence on the dissociation between implicit and explicit memory.

The Concreteness Effect in Implicit and Explicit Memory Tests

Background and objectives: Implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) memory associations with drugs have been examined primarily using verbal cues. However, drug seeking, drug use behaviors, and relapse in chronic cocaine and other drug users are frequently triggered by viewing substance-related visual cues in the environment. We thus examined implicit and explicit memory for drug picture cues to understand the relative extent to which conscious and unconscious memory facilitation of visual drug cues occurs during cocaine dependence. Methods: Memory for drug-related and neutral picture cues was assessed in 14 inpatient cocaine-dependent polydrug users and a comparison group of 21 young adults with limited drug experience (n = 35). Participants completed picture cue exposure, free recall and recognition tasks to assess explicit memory, and a repetition priming task to assess implicit memory. Results: Drug cues, compared to neutral cues, were better explicitly recalled and implicitly primed, and especially so in the cocaine group. In contrast, neutral cues were better explicitly recognized, and especially in the control group. Conclusion: Certain forms of explicit and implicit memory for drug cues were enhanced in cocaine users compared to controls when memory was tested a short time following cue exposure. Enhanced unconscious memory processing of drug cues in chronic cocaine users may be a behavioral manifestation of heightened drug cue salience that supports drug seeking and taking. There may be value in expanding intervention techniques to utilize cocaine users’ implicit memory system.

Explicit and implicit memory in the elderly: Evidence for double dissociation involving medial temporal- and frontal-lobe functions.

Perceptual identification task points to continuity between implicit memory and recall

In this study, three experiments are presented that investigate the reliability of memory measures. In Experiment 1, the well-known dissociation between explicit (recall, recognition) and implicit memory (picture clarification) as a function of age in a sample of 335 persons aged between 65 and 95 was replicated. Test-retest reliability was significantly lower in implicit than in explicit measures. In Experiment 2, parallel-test reliabilities in a student sample confirmed the finding of Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, the reliability of cued recall and word stem completion was investigated. There were significant priming effects and a dissociation between explicit and implicit memory as a function of levels of processing. However, the reliability of implicit memory measures was again substantially lower than in explicit tests in all test conditions. As a consequence, differential reliabilities of direct and indirect memory tests should be considered as a possible determinant of dissociations between explicit and implicit memory as a function of experimental or quasi-experimental manipulations.

High doses of opioid associated with low doses of hypnotic is a popular anaesthetic technique since the use of remifentanil has become widespread. This type of anaesthesia could result in a higher incidence of implicit memory. Ten patients were anaesthetised with a target-controlled infusion of remifentanil (target concentration of 8 ng mL(-1)) combined with a target-controlled infusion of propofol with progressive stepwise increases until loss of consciousness was reached. A tape containing 20 words was then played to the patients. Bispectral index (BIS, Aspect Medical Systems, Newton, MA, USA) was continuously monitored during the whole study period. Implicit and explicit memories were tested between 2 and 4 h after recovery. Loss of consciousness was obtained with a mean calculated propofol plasma concentration of 1.3 +/- 0.4 microg mL(-1). At this low hypnotic concentration no implicit or explicit memory was found in the three postoperative memory tests. Median (range) BIS value during word presentation was 93 (80-98). In our group of young American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) I/II patients, no explicit or implicit memory was found when the calculated concentration of propofol combined with a high concentration of remifentanil was maintained at the level associated with loss of consciousness with high BIS values.

It is well documented that explicit (declarative, conscious) memory declines in normal aging. Studies have shown a progressive reduction in this form of memory with age, and healthy older adults (typically aged 65+ years) usually perform worse than younger adults (typically aged 18–30 years) on laboratory tests of explicit memory such as recall and recognition. In contrast, it is less clear whether implicit (procedural, unconscious) memory declines or remains stable in normal aging. Implicit memory is evident when previous experiences affect (e.g., facilitate) performance on tasks that do not require conscious recollection of those experiences. This can manifest in rehearsed motor skills, such as playing a musical instrument, but is typically indexed in the laboratory by the greater ease with which previously studied information is processed relative to non-studied information (e.g., repetition priming). While a vast amount of research has accumulated to suggest that implicit memory remains relatively stable over the adult lifespan, and is similar in samples of young and older adults, other studies have in contrast revealed that implicit memory is subject to age-related decline. Improving methods for determining whether implicit memory declines or remains stable with age is an important goal for future research, as the issue not only has significant implications for an aging society regarding interventions likely to ameliorate the effects of age-related explicit memory decline, but can also inform our theoretical understanding of human memory systems.

In 4 experiments, implicit and explicit memory for words and nonwords were compared. In Experiments 1-2 memory for words and legal nonwords (e.g., kers) was assessed with an identification (implicit) and a recognition (explicit) memory task: Robust priming was obtained for both words and nonwords, and the priming effects dissociated from explicit memory following a levels-of-processing manipulation (Experiment 1) and following a study-test modality shift (Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, priming for legal and illegal nonwords (e.g., xyks) was observed on an identification task, and the effects dissociated from explicit memory following a levels-of-processing manipulation. Finally, in Experiment 4, significant inhibitory priming for legal nonwords was observed when a lexical-decision task was used. Results suggest that implicit memory can extend to legal and illegal nonwords. Implications for theories of implicit memory are discussed.

Neural Correlates of Perceptual/Semantic Encoding and Implicit/Explicit Retrieval: An fMRI Study T. Park (tpark@chonnam.ac.kr) Department of Psychology, Chonnam National University Kwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea The important distinction between implicit and explicit memory tests is based on intentional effort and conscious recollection experience during retrieval process (Schacter, 1987), which have been suggested to be associated with increased activity in prefrontal and medial temporal regions, respectively (Schacter & Buckner, 1998). The present study investigated brain areas activated during tasks involving implicit and explicit memory retrieval, and examined neural correlates of conscious recollection and intentional effort during memory retrieval. Methods Whole-brain functional MRI was used to examine 8 subjects during retrieval in a block-designed fMRI experiment (Fig. 1). Two incidental study conditions were manipulated: Semantic and perceptual word encoding conditions. This manipulation of level of processing (LoP) was expected to yield two retrieval conditions that differed with regard to intentional retrieval effort and successful conscious recollection: Semantic encoding yielding low level of retrieval effort with high level of retrieval success and perceptual encoding yielding high level of effort with low level of retrieval success. After studying, word fragment completion (WFC) task was presented and then cued recall (CR) task was presented with word fragment cues. PER 30S SEM 30S 30S PER 30S 30S UNS PER SEM 30S SEM 30S 30S 30S UNS PER SEM 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S Fig. 1. A schematic illustration of study (above) and retrieval (below) paradigm. Critical study blocks (Semantic Encoding and Perceptual Encoding) were 30-s long separated by 30-s blocks of fixation (+). Critical retrieval blocks (Unstudied, Perceptually studied, Semantically studied) were also 30-s long separated by 30-s blocks of fixation in each of WFC and CR tasks. Results During explicit retrieval (CR) of the semantically encoded words, right inferior frontal regions (Brodman Areas 45, 47) were activated but right anterior frontal regions (BA 10) were deactivated. These results suggest different roles of different prefrontal regions during explicit (episodic) memory retrieval: BA 45/47 involved in conscious recollection and BA 10 in intentional effort (McIntosh et al., 1997). Also, parahippocampal gyrus was activated during explicit retrieval of the semantically encoded words, and this result supports the idea that medial temporal lobe is a neural correlate of conscious retrieval success. During implicit retrieval (WFC), occipital lobe (BA 17, 18 including fusiform gyrus) showed reduced activation when word fragments were primed, and this result supports the view that posterior areas are neural correlates of perceptual priming. Unexpectedly, right parahippocampal gyrus showed increased activation during implicit retrieval of the semantically encoded words. This result suggests that LoP effects which were often observed in studies of implicit memory retrieval could be the result of involuntary recollection (explicit contamination). Acknowledgements This research was supported as a Brain Neuroinformatics Research Program sponsored by Korean Ministry of Science and Technology. References McIntosh, A. R., Nyberg, L., Bookstein, F. L., & Tulving, E. (1997). Differential functional connectivity of prefrontal and medial temporal cortices during episodic memory retrieval. Human Brain Mapping, 5, 323-327. Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 501-518. Schacter, D. L., & Buckner, R. L. (1998). On the relations among priming, conscious recollection, and intentional retrieval: Evidence from neuroimaging research. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 70, 284-303.

Using the Process Dissociation Procedure: The Meaning and Value of Comparable Base Rates

There is considerable evidence in the literature showing that memory is not a unitary entity. Old neuropsychological findings from different groups of patients and more recent laboratory studies are in agreement about the major memory systems in the human brain. A distinction is made between declarative or explicit memory and nondeclarative or implicit memory. Of special interest is the distinction in declarative memory between episodic and semantic memory [1]. Episodic memory includes personal experiences and conscious recollection of events in our past. This type of memory is defined by the capacity to retrieve voluntarily facts and events in the spatial-temporal context. On the other hand, semantic memory refers to our general knowledge, including the meaning of words and concepts.