Energy Efficient Neighbor Discovery Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks Using Coprime Numbers

Tactical Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) provide a low-signature communications system that can be used for a wide variety of military applications. However, these networks are vulnerable to intrusion and must balance security with performance and longevity. The neighbor discovery process in a WSN is vital for nodes to maintain network connectivity, but it introduces security vulnerabilities. In addition, existing protocols for securing the neighbor discovery process use public key encryption (PKE), which is computationally expensive for low-powered, resource-constrained IEEE 802.15.4 enabled sensor devices. Therefore, a lightweight algorithm to secure the neighbor discovery process is necessary to prevent unauthorized nodes from accessing network data and resources. We develop a key management algorithm that modifies the commonly used Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) and Secure Neighbor Discovery (SEND) protocol. We replace PKE in NPD and SEND with a symmetric encryption algorithm, AES, to allow for energy efficiency. In addition, we implement the Diffie-Hellman key exchange algorithm for symmetric key management. We simulate our algorithm in MATLAB to demonstrate its effectiveness in securing the neighbor discovery protocol while providing energy and message efficiency and key security.

Neighbor Discovery (ND) protocol has been proposed to discover neighboring hosts and routers in IPv6 wired or wireless local networks. Even though ND protocol is very useful, it has a weakness to security because it allows a malicious user to impersonate a legitimate host or a router by forging ND protocol messages. To address the security problem, IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) has proposed SEcure Neighbor Discovery (SEND) protocol. The key functions of SEND protocol include address ownership proof mechanism, ND protocol message protection mechanism, reply attack prevention mechanism, and router authentication mechanism. In this paper, we analyze SEND protocol in the view point of security through several experiments. For this, we implement SEND protocol in IPv6 real system and develop a simulation environment. Based on the experimental results, we also propose a monitoring-based ND message differentiation scheme which is able to make up for security vulnerability of SEND protocol effectively.

Neighbor Discovery (ND) protocol has been proposed to discover neighboring hosts and routers in IPv6 wired or wireless local networks. Even though ND protocol is very useful, it has a weakness to security because it allows a malicious user to impersonate a legitimate host or a router by forging ND protocol messages. To address the security problem, IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) has proposed SEcure Neighbor Discovery (SEND) protocol. The key functions of SEND protocol include address ownership proof mechanism, ND protocol message protection mechanism, reply attack prevention mechanism, and router authentication mechanism. In this paper, we analyze SEND protocol in the view point of security through several experiments. For this, we implement SEND protocol in IPv6 real system and develop a simulation environment. Based on the experimental results, we also propose a monitoring-based ND message differentiation scheme which is able to make up for security vulnerability of SEND protocol effectively.

Neighbor Discovery (ND) protocol has been proposed to discover neighboring hosts and routers in IPv6 wired or wireless local networks. Even though ND protocol is very useful, it has a weakness to security because it allows a malicious user to impersonate a legitimate host or a router by forging ND protocol messages. To address the security problem, IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) has proposed SEcure Neighbor Discovery (SEND) protocol. The key functions of SEND protocol include address ownership proof mechanism, ND protocol message protection mechanism, reply attack prevention mechanism, and router authentication mechanism. In this paper, we analyze SEND protocol in the view point of security through several experiments. For this, we implement SEND protocol in IPv6 real system and develop a simulation environment. Based on the experimental results, we also propose a monitoring-based ND message differentiation scheme which is able to make up for security vulnerability of SEND protocol effectively.

Mobile devices apply neighbor discovery (ND) protocols to wirelessly initiate a first contact within the shortest possible amount of time and with minimal energy consumption. For this purpose, over the last decade, a vast number of ND protocols have been proposed, which have progressively reduced the relation between the time within which discovery is guaranteed and the energy consumption. In spite of the simplicity of the problem statement, even after more than 10 years of research on this specific topic, new solutions are still proposed even today. Despite the large number of known ND protocols, given an energy budget, what is the best achievable latency still remains unclear. This paper addresses this question and for the first time presents safe and tight, duty-cycle-dependent bounds on the worst-case discovery latency that no ND protocol can beat. Surprisingly, several existing protocols are indeed optimal, which has not been known until now. We conclude that there is no further potential to improve the relation between latency and duty-cycle, but future ND protocols can improve their robustness against beacon collisions.

As an indispensable part of Internet of Things (IoT), wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are more and more widely used with the rapid development of IoT. The neighbor discovery protocols are the premise of communication between nodes and networking in energy-limited self-organizing wireless networks, and play an important role in WSNs. Because the node energy is limited, neighbor discovery must operate in an energy-efficient manner, that is, under the condition of a given energy budget, the neighbor discovery performance should be as good as possible, such that the discovery latency would be as small as possible and the discovered neighbor percentage as large as possible. The indirect neighbor discovery mainly uses the information of the neighbors that have been found by a pairwise discovery method to more efficiently make a re-planning of the discovery wake-up schedules of the original pairwise neighbor discovery, thereby improving the discovery energy efficiency. The current indirect neighbor discovery methods are mainly divided into two categories: one involves removing the inefficient active slots in the original discovery wake-up schedules, and the other involves adding some efficient active slots. However, the two categories of methods have their own limitations. The former does not consider that this removal operation destroys the integrity of the original discovery wake-up schedules and hence the possibility of discovering new neighbors is reduced, which adversely affects the discovered neighbor percentage. For the latter category, there are still inefficient active slots that were not removed in the re-planned wake-up schedules. The motivation of this paper is to combine the advantages of these two types of indirect neighbor discovery methods, that is, to combine the addition of efficient active slots and the removal of inefficient active slots. To achieve this goal, this paper proposes, for the first time, the concept of virtual nodes in neighbor discovery to maximize the integrity of the original wake-up schedules and achieve the goals of adding efficient active slots and removing inefficient active slots. Specifically, a virtual node is a collaborative group that is formed by nodes within a small range. The nodes in a collaborative group share responsibility for the activating task of one member node, and the combination of these nodes’ wake-up schedules forms the full wake-up schedule of a node that only uses a pairwise method. In addition, this paper proposes a set of efficient group management mechanisms, and the key steps affecting energy efficiency are analyzed theoretically to obtain the energy-optimal parameters. The extended simulation experiments in multiple scenarios show that, compared with other methods, our neighbor discovery protocol based on virtual nodes (VN-NDP) has a significant improvement in average discovery delay and discovered neighbor percentage performance at a given energy budget. Compared with the typical indirect neighbor discovery algorithm EQS, a neighbor discovery with extended quorum system, our proposed VN-NDP method reduces the average discovery delay by up to and increases the discovered neighbor percentage by up to .

Directional antennas have numerous advantages over traditional omnidirectional antennas, which include more spatial reuse, extended range, less interference, and less energy consumption. Directional antennas introduce deafness and new hidden terminal problems. Deafness may cause more collisions, and hidden terminal problems may result in more retransmissions, poor quality of service, more energy consumption, and less packet delivery ratio. Hence, it is important to design of an effective medium access protocol specifically for directional antennas in order to reap the benefits of directional antennas while managing deafness and hidden terminal problems, otherwise the challenges can adversely affect system performance. In wireless sensor networks, the sensors are battery powered with limited supply of energy. Therefore, energy efficient protocols and solutions are immensely important with the desired goal of extending the network lifetime longer than what is possible through the omnidirectional antennas. In this thesis, I have proposed an energy efficient scheduled directional medium access control protocol (DTRAMA) which is specially designed for the wireless sensor nodes which use directional antennas in wireless sensor networks. It is a traffic adaptive scheduled medium access protocol in which nodes create their transmission and sleep schedules on the basis of their traffic. Scheduled medium access for packet transmission is used to address the deafness and hidden terminal problems caused by the use of directional communication in contention based MAC protocols. Use of directional antenna reduces interference which indirectly improves packet delivery ratio by improving the signal to noise ratio and by reducing the packet error rate. DTRAMA is energy efficient: firstly because the nodes use directional data communication which requires lower node transmit power than the omnidirectional data communication for the same transmission range; and secondly, because the nodes schedule their sleep period to reduce idle listening and overhearing which improves energy efficiency. In DTRAMA, sleep schedule of the node is traffic adaptive which is essential to maximize the sleep period. The node, by using spatial reuse checks, reuses the wireless medium to the maximum extent to reap the spatial reuse benefits of the directional antenna. The nodes reduce their packet latency through spatial reuse. Through simulation and by using different topologies, I have compared the performance of DTRAMA with those of omnidirectional schedule MAC protocol (TRAMA) and contention based directional MAC protocol (DMAC), which clearly shows that DTRAMA outperforms TRAMA and DMAC in packet delivery ratio and outperforms TRAMA in terms of packet latency.

Directional antennas have numerous advantages over traditional omnidirectional antennas, which include more spatial reuse, extended range, less interference, and less energy consumption. Directional antennas introduce deafness and new hidden terminal problems. Deafness may cause more collisions, and hidden terminal problems may result in more retransmissions, poor quality of service, more energy consumption, and less packet delivery ratio. Hence, it is important to design of an effective medium access protocol specifically for directional antennas in order to reap the benefits of directional antennas while managing deafness and hidden terminal problems, otherwise the challenges can adversely affect system performance. In wireless sensor networks, the sensors are battery powered with limited supply of energy. Therefore, energy efficient protocols and solutions are immensely important with the desired goal of extending the network lifetime longer than what is possible through the omnidirectional antennas. In this thesis, I have proposed an energy efficient scheduled directional medium access control protocol (DTRAMA) which is specially designed for the wireless sensor nodes which use directional antennas in wireless sensor networks. It is a traffic adaptive scheduled medium access protocol in which nodes create their transmission and sleep schedules on the basis of their traffic. Scheduled medium access for packet transmission is used to address the deafness and hidden terminal problems caused by the use of directional communication in contention based MAC protocols. Use of directional antenna reduces interference which indirectly improves packet delivery ratio by improving the signal to noise ratio and by reducing the packet error rate. DTRAMA is energy efficient: firstly because the nodes use directional data communication which requires lower node transmit power than the omnidirectional data communication for the same transmission range; and secondly, because the nodes schedule their sleep period to reduce idle listening and overhearing which improves energy efficiency. In DTRAMA, sleep schedule of the node is traffic adaptive which is essential to maximize the sleep period. The node, by using spatial reuse checks, reuses the wireless medium to the maximum extent to reap the spatial reuse benefits of the directional antenna. The nodes reduce their packet latency through spatial reuse. Through simulation and by using different topologies, I have compared the performance of DTRAMA with those of omnidirectional schedule MAC protocol (TRAMA) and contention based directional MAC protocol (DMAC), which clearly shows that DTRAMA outperforms TRAMA and DMAC in packet delivery ratio and outperforms TRAMA in terms of packet latency.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are quickly becoming an essential part of today's modern infrastructure, and it is becoming crucial to consider time synchronisation problems in WSNs. Furthermore, one of the main design issues in WSN time synchronisation is the efficient use of energy at each sensor node to prolong the lifespan of the network. This paper describes a new energy-efficient time protocol based on the spanning tree of the network model graph in a WSN. Three major cases are discussed: 1) time synchronisation using the energy-efficient spanning tree (EST) protocol in a WSN with approximately 300 sensors; 2) an improved EST protocol in large-scale WSNs; 3) an improved EST protocol under weighted graph. Additionally, a series of practical algorithms are proposed in this paper, where both energy and time efficient can be clearly shown through a number of simulated examples along with their comparative results.

<span lang="EN-US">Recent developments and widespread in wireless sensor network have led to many routing protocols, many of these protocols consider the efficiency of energy as the ultimate factor to maximize the WSN lifetime. The quality of Service (QoS) requirements for different applications of wireless sensor networks has posed additional challenges. Imaging and data transmission needs both QoS aware routing and energy to ensure the efficient use of sensors. In this paper, we propose an Efficient, Energy-Aware, Least Cost, (ECQSR) quality of service routing protocol for sensor networks which can run efficiently with best-effort traffic processing. The protocol aims to maximize the lifetime of the network out of balancing energy consumption across multiple nodes, by using the concept of service differentiation, finding lower cost by finding the shortest path using nearest neighbor algorithm (NN), also put certain constraints on the delay of the path for real-time data from where link cost that captures energy nodes reserve, energy of the transmission, error rate and other parameters. The results show that the proposed protocol improves the network lifetime and low power consumption.</span>

There are different applications of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). It can be deployed in various application areas such as monitoring of environment, surveillance, industrial automation, health-care, agriculture etc. A sensor node is usually a resource constrained device which has limited energy, processing power and memory. One of the important aspects of QoS aware routing protocols in WSNs is to send the delay sensitive data to a control station known as sink. In this paper, a delay sensitive cluster based routing protocol for wireless sensor networks is proposed. The purpose of clustering is to reduce energy consumption among the sensor nodes. The data forwarding mechanism of the protocol attempts to reduce end to end delay of delay sensitive traffic in reaching the sink. The protocol is evaluated through simulation using NS2.

The appearance of wireless sensor networks has attracted worldwide attention. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks (WMSNs) consist of wirelessly interconnected sensor nodes organised arbitrarily or deterministically in an environmental area which can gather, distribute and route information in different application areas. Power consumption in these networks is the foremost problem. WSNs are a recent generation of sensor networks, have an ample range of applications, their expansion and application will convey about extensive impact in human life and construction of all areas. Some of the applications include disaster management, landslide detection, glacial monitoring, wildlife tracking, healthcare, military applications, environmental monitoring, security surveillance, industrial process control and a large number of applications to robotics and Internet of Things (IOT) projects. This paper will demonstrate the elementary description of WSN followed by different energy-efficient power consumption protocols. Here we have performed the comparative performance analysis of different energy-efficient protocols. In our work we have compared MODLEACH with TSEP followed by TSEP with RELSEP.

In this study, the authors present an energy-efficient data compression protocol for data collection in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). WSNs are essentially constrained by motes’ limited battery power and networks bandwidth. The authors focus on data compression algorithms and protocol development to effectively support data compression for data gathering in WSNs. Their design of compressed data-stream protocol (CDP) is generic in the sense that other lossless or lossy compression algorithms can be easily ‘plugged’ into the proposed protocol system without any changes to the rest of the CDP. This design intends to support various different WSN applications where users may prefer more specific compression algorithms, tailored to the sensing data characteristics in question, to their general algorithm. CDP is not only able to significantly reduce energy consumptions of data gathering in multi-hop WSNs, but also able to reduce sensor network traffic and thus avoid congestion accordingly. The proposed CDP is implemented on the tinyOS platform using the nesC programming language. To evaluate their work, the authors conduct simulations via TOSSIM and PowerTOSSIM-z with real-world sensor data. The results demonstrate the significance of CDP.

In the contemporary era of unprecedented innovations such as Internet of Things (IoT), modern applications cannot be imagined without the presence of Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). Nodes in WSN use neighbour discovery (ND) protocols to have necessary communication among the nodes. Neighbour discovery process is crucial as it is to be done with energy efficiency and minimize discovery latency and maximize percentage of neighbours discovered. The current ND approaches that are indirect in nature are categorized into methods of removal of active slots from wake-up schedules and intelligent addition of new slots. The two methods are found to have certain drawbacks. The first category disturbs original integrity of wake-up schedules leading to reduced chances of discovering new nodes in WSN as neighbours. When second category is followed, it may have inefficient slots in the wake-up schedules leading to performance degradation. Therefore, the motivation behind the work in this paper is that by combining the two categories, it is possible to reap benefits of both and get rid of the limitations of the both. Making a hybrid is achieved by introducing virtual nodes that help maximize performance by ensuring original integrity of wake-up schedules and adding of efficient active slots. Thus a Hybrid Approach to Neighbour Discovery (HAND) protocol is realized in WSN. The simulation study revealed that HAND outperforms the existing indirect ND models.

ABSTRACTReliability is a crucial aspect of time synchronization for industrial wireless applications in wireless sensor networks. Existing time synchronization algorithms often provide good synchronization in laboratory environments; however, outdoor environments with associated radio interference influence the performance of time synchronization. In this paper, we propose a random time source protocol for industrial wireless applications in wireless sensor network synchronization. Each synchronized node randomly selects its time source for each period in order to prevent reliance on a fixed time source because this may lead to resynchronization once the source fails. We have implemented the algorithm on the SIA2420 platform usingTinyOS, and the results show the reliability of our protocol. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.