Enhanced dynamics of sensorless two-wheel drive electric vehicles through electronic differential and advanced metaheuristic algorithms

For Electric vehicle(EV) application, Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) is widely used due to high power density and high efficiency. Field Oriented Control (FOC) with feedforward compensation is used predominantly for motor control to give better dynamic performance. With the changing motor parameters due to ageing effect or variation in motor temperature causes torque ripple and EV vibrations. This paper presents the implementation of Neural Network (NN) for PMSM Control to reduce the torque ripples. NN with current feedback works as a feedforward network. Current control PI regulators and feedforward compensation is replaced with NN model. It improves the decoupling accuracy in between d-axis and q-axis currents and also reduces the torque ripples even if motor parameters varied slightly. Vehicle dynamics is taken into consideration during simulation. Matlab/Simulink tool is used for simulation and verified the Motor torque performance with FOC and NN.

This paper examines the enhancement of Electric Vehicle (EV) Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) drives through the integration of Field-Oriented Control (FOC) with Model Predictive Control (MPC). The study aims to achieve high precision and dynamic response for PMSM drives under diverse operating conditions. FOC provides good control capability over full torque and speed ranges. MPC is an optimal control technique in which the calculated control actions minimize a cost function for a constrained dynamic system. The theoretical framework combines FOC and MPC principles, utilizing MPC's predictive capabilities to optimize d-q current references in real-time. The methodology encompasses the design and implementation of an MPC technique integrated with FOC, with key objectives including minimising torque ripples, maintaining vehicle stability through robust control loops, and optimising PMSM drive performance across a wide speed range of EV. Different types of torque control methodologies, such as PI Controller and Voltage Vector Control for PMSM Control, can be applied to an electric vehicle. The results indicate significant improvements in torque ripple reduction, dynamic response, and disturbance rejection, demonstrating the robustness and adaptability of the proposed control system compared with the PI Controller. This approach effectively addresses key challenges and signifies advancements over traditional control methods, contributing to the field of electric vehicle control systems.

Oscillation of torque and speed occurs in the electric powertrain based on permanent magnet synchronous motor under field-oriented control when we set an unreasonable proportional control parameter of proportional–integral regulator. Thus, it influences the stability and reliability of electric powertrain. The objectives of this article are to study nonlinear dynamics of electric powertrain under various complex operating conditions and settle a minimum stable range of proportional control parameter of proportional–integral regulator. To achieve these goals, nonlinear dynamic model of electric powertrain was established. Then, we solved equilibrium points and analyzed the stability of equilibrium points. Finally, we set different control parameters of proportional–integral regulator and various complex working conditions of electric powertrain to simulate nonlinear dynamics of electric powertrain. The simulation results show the electric powertrain operates stably when the control parameter is set in the area where there is only one stable equilibrium point. Chaos do exist in the electric powertrain with field-oriented control under different working conditions. Our analysis reveals the dynamics of electric powertrain are dependent on proportional control parameters of proportional–integral regulator and electric powertrain performs unstably most likely under the operating condition with no-load and zero reference rotational speed.

Brushless DC motors are most utilized in areas of aerospace and electric vehicles. They offer great efficiency, compact size, and superior power density. However, the BLDC motor’s torque output ripples provide significant challenges. Torque ripple causes undesirable vibrations, acoustic noise, and reduced performance. The main problem addressed in this article is minimizing torque ripple while achieving precise speed control. The proposed solution to the problem stated here is the Field-Oriented Control (FOC)-based speed control strategy. FOC enables smooth torque production and improved dynamic performance as opposed to typical trapezoidal control methods. The paper involved mathematical modeling of the BLDC motor using Clarke-Park transformations. Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) is utilized to produce pulses to excite the stator coil. The FOC algorithm was executed in MATLAB/Simulink, and the system has been tested for differing load conditions. Important parameters, such as speed and current response, were analyzed. The ripple percentage of the torque output was compared against the IEEE std. 1812-2023 to prove the effectiveness of the FOC control loop. The results displayed that the FOC system significantly reduced ripple in torque output and thus improved the efficacy of the motor. In conclusion, the FOC strategy proved to be highly effective. It outperformed the six-step commutation strategy with respect to the torque ripple reduction and overall performance. Hence, proving the value of this method of control in applications like electric vehicles.

Permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) is the most widely used motor in electric vehicles (EV) due to its high power density and high efficiency. Conventional direct torque control (DTC) is developed to improve the performance of speed response of the PMSM drive but it suffers from higher torque ripples. Therefore a space vector modulation (SVM) based DTC has been developed to enhance the speed response. Due to the use of flux comparator and torque comparator conventional DTC has disadvantages such as higher torque and current ripples at steady state. To improve the performance of PMSM drive a space vector pulse width modulation is used with 3 level NPCI. To improve the performance of 2 level inverter in the PMSM drive is replaced with a neutral point clamped inverter (NPCI). Also, the switching selection strategy of SVM is modified using nearest three space vector pulse width modulation to reduce the total harmonic distortion (THD) in the inverter output. The simulation outcome proves that the SVM technique implementation in DTC for 3 level NPCI yields good performance for PMSM.KeywordsElectric vehicles (EV),voltage source inverter (VSI)Direct torque control (DTC)Neutral point clamped inverter (NPCI)Permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM)Space vector modulation (SVM)Total harmonic distortion (THD)

For electric vehicles (EVs), permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) are competitive owing to their high power factor, high efficiency and high power density. In this paper, four types of PMSMs with different rotor topologies are designed with the same motor main dimensions and the same amount of permanent magnet usage. First, the different PMSMs are compared in terms of their torque characteristics. The torque characteristic curves of the four motors are displayed with the control method i <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">d</sub> =0 for surface-mounted PMSM (SPMSM) and Maximum Torque per Ampere (MTPA) for interior PMSM (IPMSM). It turns out that IPMSM has higher starting torque than SPMSM due to the reluctance torque. Among the three IPMSMs with different rotor structures, V-shape IPMSM and delta-shape IPMSM can provide higher output torque under the same current supply with the higher salient rate. More information on the no-load magnetic density, torque ripple, efficiency and demagnetization problem operated at the peak current is also provided and compared. Then the four PMSMs with the same peak current are further analyzed and compared on the flux-weakening speed-enlarge (FWSE) capability. The results show good FWSE capability for all of the four PMSMs owing to the large peak current. However, the torque of SPMSM in flux-weakening control region is slightly higher than the IPMSMs.

Permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) are widely favored by manufacturers for use in electric vehicles (EVs) because of their many benefits, which include high power density at high speeds, ruggedness, potential for high efficiency, and reduced control complexity. However, since the Back Electromotive Force (EMF) increases proportionally with the motor’s rotational speed, it must be carefully controlled at high speeds. Flux-weakening (FW) control is required to avoid excessive electromagnetic flux beyond the power source and inverter’s voltage restrictions. This paper aims to compare various FW control strategies and analyze their effectiveness in maximizing the speed of PMSMs in EV applications while ensuring stable and reliable performance. Various FW approaches, such as voltage-based control, current-based control, and advanced predictive control methods, are examined to determine how each method balances speed enhancement with torque output and efficiency. In addition, other control strategies are crucial for optimizing the performance of PMSMs in electric vehicles. Among the most popular methods for controlling torque and speed in PMSMs are Field-Oriented Control (FOC), Direct Torque Control (DTC), and Vector Current Control (VCC). Each control technique has advantages and is frequently cited in the literature as a crucial instrument for improving EV motor control. This article provides a comprehensive evaluation of FW methods, highlighting their respective advantages and disadvantages by synthesizing the findings of numerous studies. In addition to outlining future research directions in FW control for EV applications, this study provides essential insights and valuable suggestions to help select FW control techniques for various PMSM types and operating conditions.

Nowadays electric vehicle has increasingly gained much popularity indicated by growing global share market targeted at 30% by 2030 after recording 7.2million global stock in 2019. Compared to Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) counterpart, Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) produce zero tailpipe emission which greatly reducing carbon footprints. Induction motor has been widely used and its control technology has evolved from scalar type volt/hertz to recent predictive control technology. This allows induction motor’s application to expand from being the workhorse of industry to become prime mover in electric vehicle, where high performance is expected. Among vector control scheme, Direct Torque Control (DTC) has gained interest over Field Oriented Control (FOC) with simpler structure, better robustness and dynamics performance yet suffer from high torque and flux ripple. In electric vehicle applications, high ripple at low speed is highly undesirable, potentially causing torsional vibration. High performance control requires speed sensor integration, which often increase complexity in the design. The work aims to review the best control technology for induction motor in electric vehicle application through performance parameter evaluation such as improvement on dynamic response, torque and flux ripple reduction, and component optimization. Several arise issues in motor control and possible methods to circumvent are highlighted in this work. In conclusion, model predictive torque control (MPTC) is the most promising scheme for electric vehicle with excellent dynamic response, good low speed performance, and 50% torque ripple reduction compared to conventional DTC and potential integration with sliding mode observer for sensorless solution.

The development of electric and hybrid vehicles has gained increasing attention in recent years. This paper proposes an Electric drive for Hybrid vehicles application and its control strategy to achieve a wide speed range. In these vehicles, important requirements for the electric drive are low weight, small volume, high efficiency and low cost. When choosing the motor for the vehicle drive, the induction motor is an obvious alternative but a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) can offer advantages in terms of higher efficiency and specific power. In this paper a permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) is used as an electric drive machine. The operation of a PMSM above the base speed is possible by weakening the permanent-magnet excitation by a demagnetizing field component supplied by the stator winding. This can be done by closed loop operation of PMSM. The speed and torque control of the PMSM drive used as hybrid vehicle is controlled by proper tuning the PI controllers. A three level diode clamped inverter using IGBT's has simulated, whose switching sequences are controlled by Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM). A mathematical model of PMSM drive suitable for hybrid vehicle has simulated and proper closed loop control is established by field oriented control method. The entire work is done in MATLAB/SIMULINK.

This paper describes a full digital system to control a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) used in electric vehicle (EV) driving by TMS320C240 DSP. In view of the operation characteristic of EV, a fuzzy-PI control strategy is presented based on the field orientated control (FOC) and space vector technique in order to utilize reluctance torque of PMSM effectively. Due to the compensation for torque changes resulting from d-axis current in real-time, the system maintains high efficiency in all range of speed. The combination of fewer components and the improved control strategy enables the system to fulfil enhanced operation performance of EV.

As permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM) have high power density, efficiency, good dynamic performance, and small size they are becoming popular in electric vehicle (EV) applications. Control performance and the efficiency of the system get affected due to electrical, mechanical parameters. Parameters value gets affected by voltage source inverter (VSI) non-linearities, temperature and magnetic saturation effects. If exact parameters for particular torque speed requirement are found, the efficiency of system increases. There are various offline and online methods for finding parameters. Offline methods are easy to implement but requires extra setup and estimate parameters in steady state. Because the effects of transient conditions are taken into account during identification, online methods for obtaining real-time data under running conditions are becoming more popular. An overview about online numerical methods to estimate electrical parameters of PMSM is given. It discusses difference between various methods in terms of computational cost, convergence speed, noise and identification error. Choosing of method will be easy using this work. For inductance estimation, the extended Kalman filter (EKF) algorithm has an identification error of 0.24% under temperature effect and -0.3% under VSI non-linearities effect. The identification error for Rs and ψf using the recursive least square (RLS) method is 0.5% and 0.02%, respectively, when temperature is considered. EKF and RLS algorithms are proposed.

Electric vehicle has been gaining popularity in the worldwide market. The drive system for an electric vehicle usually consists of a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) and a two-stage gear system. The vibration characteristics of electric drive system is of great importance to the noise and durability performance. Recently, rotor-step skewing has drawn attention as a means to reduce the vibration response for the PMSM, since it can effectively reduce the torque ripple as shown in the previous studies. However, the coupling relationship between the torque ripple and the gear transmission system has not been studied thoroughly. To explore the influence of torque ripple on the motor-gear system when considering rotor-step skewing, this paper proposes a coupled electro-mechanical system model to study the vibration characteristics of electric drive system. The effect of rotor-step skewing on cogging torque and torque ripple of PMSM, dynamic transmission error (DTE) of gear transmission system, and vibration characteristics of electric drive system is studied. The simulation results show that the torque ripple has a significant effect on the DTE and the vibration responses of the electric drive system. The rotor-step skewing not only effectively suppress the torque ripple, but also optimize the DTE harmonics induced by the torque ripple.

The major malfunction of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) in Electric Vehicle (EV) applications is an open-phase defect, which degrades motor efficiency and increases losses due to unbalanced phase currents. Traditional Fault-Tolerant Control (FTC) techniques, on the other hand, could suffer from the monitoring problems of sinusoidal-shaped current references. In this study, a proposed fault-tolerant approach for open-phase during the driving cycle and starting of the PMSM is suggested, which differs from earlier fault-tolerant techniques by suggesting a proposed compensating transformation matrix for current and voltage references in the d-q rotating reference frame will be translated to the phase current and voltage references of the two healthy remaining phases. The proposed setup enables the EV to be operated under open-phase fault-tolerant (OPFT) with simple controller and high performance. Furthermore, since the proposed system depends on a four-leg inverter, it has a higher fault-tolerance capability than the three-phase Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) technique, to also compensate the possibility of loss of any VSI leg, but for sure with additional cost of the overall drive system. Eventually, the simulation output results supported the suggested fault-tolerant approach under Field-Oriented Control (FOC) for different modes of operations.

Driving cycles are commonly used to evaluate the fuel efficiency and mileage of internal combustion engine vehicles and electric vehicles (EVs). To improve the mileage of EVs, efficient propulsion motors and inverters must be employed, particularly at frequently used speed and torque points of driving cycles. In this study, the number of the stator winding turns of a tap-change permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) used for EV propulsion was investigated to increase the motor and inverter energy efficiencies under an urban dynamometer driving schedule (UDDS), a highway fuel economy test (HWFET), and combined UDDS/HWFET driving cycles. The motor core loss due to the carrier harmonics, copper loss, and inverter loss were analyzed for various winding turn number combinations, and the most efficient combination was selected. Based on the analysis results, the tap-change motor winding turns that exhibited the least loss were rewound on a PMSM of a mass-produced EV. The demand energy of the proposed tap-change PMSM and that of a mass-produced PMSM in the UDDS, HWFET, and combined UDDS/HWFET driving cycles were compared through experimentation. The proposed PMSM exhibited energy improvements of 1.50%, 1.84%, and 1.65%, respectively.

The objective of this paper is to control the speed of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) over wide range of speed by consuming minimum time and low cost. Therefore, comparative performance analysis of PMSM on basis of speed regulation has been done in this study. Comparison of two control strategies i.e. Field oriented control (FOC) without sensor less Model Reference Adaptive System (MRAS) and FOC with sensor less MRAS has been carried out. Sensor less speed control of PMSM is achieved by using estimated speed deviation as feedback signal for the PI controller. Performance of the both control strategies has been evaluated in in MATLAB Simulink software. Simulation studies show the response of PMSM speed during various conditions of load and speed variations. Obtained results reveal that the proposed MRAS technique can effectively estimate the speed of rotor with high exactness and torque response is significantly quick as compared to the system without MRAS control system.