Enhancing player engagement through game balancing in digitally augmented physical games

The accurate prediction of player performance in tactical games is crucial for game designers and developers to improve matchmaking, game balancing, and player engagement. This study presents an approach to predict player performance in Tactical Troops: Anthracite Shift game using the Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM) algorithm, a scalable and efficient gradient boosting framework. Following data preprocessing, we trained and optimized the LightGBM model using appropriate objective functions and hyperparameter tuning. The proposed approach demonstrated good results in predicting player performance. Our findings highlight the potential of using the LightGBM algorithm in predicting player performance in tactical games, providing valuable insights for game developers to enhance matchmaking, skill assessment, and overall gaming experiences.

Article impact statement: Online games can improve the collection of data on human decision-making in situations relevant to conservation and stakeholder trade-offs. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

This paper describes how college students played the web-based BiblioBouts Information Literacy (IL) game, which ushers players through the library research process while they complete a research-and-writing assignment. The game teaches students basic IL skills including creating citations, judging citation completeness, assessing author expertise, assessing source relevance and credibility, judging quality, and assessing accuracy. BiblioBouts’ collaborative and social mechanisms help students leverage their own research efforts in finding sources, evaluating their usefulness, and choosing the best sources, with their classmates’ efforts so that everyone benefits. Players benefit from receiving hands-on practice and experience with the wide range of information literacy (IL) skills that confront them during the process from conducting library research to completing writing assignments. Both quantitative and qualitative game-play data were gathered from game-play logs, game diaries, focus group interviews with student game players, and personal interviews with instructors. These data were analyzed to determine typical game-play styles, how long students played the game, and the impact of scoring on the way the students played the game and engaged in IL activities. The results were used to improve game mechanics and player engagement. The R&D team’s experience building an online, interactive IL game demonstrates that game design must first focus on evaluations of player behavior followed by game-system improvements that are expected to affect the desired game-play behavior. The BiblioBouts game presents an innovative method for learning IL competencies and is unique in its social, collaborative, and interactive approach to educational gaming. It is hoped that this article will encourage IL librarians to explore games and other alternative forms of IL instruction.

Background: Evidence shows that physical exercise promotes preschoolers’ fundamental movement skills (FMSs) and physical fitness (PF). However, studies that assess the effectiveness of different types of physical exercise interventions to improve FMSs and PF in preschool children remain scarce. To explore and compare the effectiveness of different physical exercise on FMSs and PF, interventions comprising ball games (BGs), rhythm activities (RAs), basic movements (BMs), and a combination of all related activities (multiple activities, MAs) will be conducted among preschoolers. Methods: A single-blind, five-arm, cluster-randomized trial will be conducted in kindergarten in Shanghai, China. In total, 300 healthy preschoolers, aged 4 to 5 years, will be randomized to four intervention groups (BG, RA, BM, or MA) and one control group (unorganized physical activities). Four intervention groups will receive three 30-min lessons weekly for 16 weeks. At the baseline, the end of the 16-week intervention, and the 6-month follow-up after the end of the intervention, the primary outcomes (FMSs and PF) and physical activity (PA), and sociodemographic and anthropometric data will be assessed. Discussion: This study will provide vital information regarding the effect of different physical exercise interventions on preschool children’s FMSs and PF, PA, and the potential interactions between these domains. The most effective intervention strategy can be generalized to kindergarten and other preschool educational institutions in practice to promote preschoolers’ development of FMSs and PF. Conclusions: This study protocol aims to provide a method to solve the problem of “how to arrange physical exercise and which kind of physical exercise program can promote FMS and PF better in preschool children”.

The online gaming industry increasingly incorporates virtual agents to enhance player experiences. Although prior literature has explored the provision of virtual agents in gaming, research on technological advancements remains limited. In this study, we investigate how introducing artificial intelligence (AI) powered agents as virtual opponents (versus rule-based opponents) influences human players’ engagement and performance. Leveraging a large-scale quasi-field experiment in a multiplayer online racing game, we employ difference-in-differences analyses with matching strategies and show that, on average, the introduction of AI opponents can have ‘discouragement effects’ on players, resulting in reduced player engagement and decreased performance. Our research also identifies differential long-term impacts of AI opponents on engagement and performance. In addition, our mechanism exploration reveals that introducing AI opponents increases competition intensity and immersion in the game, and these two factors exhibit opposing influences on players’ subsequent behavior. Specifically, heightened competition hinders players’ further engagement and performance progression, whereas a more immersive experience encourages more gaming participation and better performance. Further, we find the effects of AI opponents on player engagement and performance vary by player motivation and skill levels, such that competition-oriented and highly skilled players are more receptive to AI opponents. Moreover, our findings indicate that optimal engagement and performance outcomes occur when players compete against opponents with comparable and low competence levels, respectively. Lastly, we observe an inverted U-shaped relationship between the proportion of AI opponents and players’ engagement and performance, wherein both insufficient and excessive exposure to AI opponents lead to diminishing outcomes. Our study contributes to the literature on human-AI interactions by offering novel empirical evidence on the impact of AI opponents on human players’ experiential and instrumental outcomes and disentangling the underlying mechanisms. This work also offers practical implications for game designers and policymakers regarding the design of AI-integrated competitive environments.

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been suggested as an effective treatment approach of childhood obesity. The objective of the present study was to examine intensity, enjoyment, and perceived exertion of a 4x4-minute play-based HIIT program for children and adolescents with obesity. 83 participants (42.2% girls, 12.3±1.5 years, 57.8% boys, 12.0±1.6 years) completed a 12-week intervention comprising three weekly sessions. After nine sessions (weeks 2, 6, and 11), participants rated perceived exertion (RPE) with a Borg scale and enjoyment of activities using the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES). Heart rate (HR) was recorded to assess time spent in high- and moderate-intensity. Participants spent more time in high-intensity during strength-based (P=0.004) and running-based (P=0.007) activities compared to ball games, and more time was spent in moderate-intensity during ball games compared to strength-based (P=0.033) and running-based (P=0.028) activities. Overall, boys spent more time in moderate-intensity than girls (P=0.007). Participants rated RPE lower for ball games than for strength-based (P<0.001) and running-based (P<0.001) activities. Boys rated running-based activities more enjoyable than girls (P=0.021). Exercise intensity and RPE vary by activity in HIIT for children and adolescents with obesity. Ball games led to less high-intensity time and were seen as less exhausting. No differences in RPE or enjoyment were found over time.

In the early childhood stages of development, ball games prove to be a crucial catalyst for improving motor abilities by actively engaging children in various physical movements that promote improved coordination, balance, and spatial awareness, while supporting important social interactions and cognitive skills essential for comprehensive growth. This study examines the effects of an 8-week ball game intervention program (tennis, football, basketball etc.) on the motor abilities of 6- to 7-year-old children (n = 47) in their regular physical education classes. The experimental group (n = 24) participated in 45-minute sessions twice weekly, while the control group (n = 23) received no additional organized physical activities. The hypotheses underlying the studysuggest that the experimental group participating in the 45-minute sessions of the structured ball game program twice a week will show statistically significant improvements in these motor abilities compared to the control group.Motor abilities were assessed using the BOT-2 subtests for fine motor integration, manual dexterity, balance, and bilateral coordination and were assessed both before and after the intervention period in both groups. The BOT-2 subtests are standardized measures developed to comprehensively assess specific motor abilities. They were selected for their proven reliability and validity in assessing the motor abilities affected by the intervention and provide a solid basis for the outcome analysis of the study. Data was subjected to repeated-measures ANOVA analysis using a 2×2 design, with partial eta squared (η) used to assess the difference between the EXP and CON groups. Results showed remarkable improvements in fine motor integration (p = 0.016), general fine motor skills (0.021), bilateral coordination (0.004), balance (0.000), and body coordination (0.000) among participants in the intervention group. This study highlights the transformative potential of just two additional weekly sessions of various ball games to improve motor abilities in 6- to 7-year-olds.

The research goal is to improve learning outcomes through modification volleyball game ball games hot in the fourth grade students of SD Negeri Cangkring 01 Talang District of Tegal in physical education subjects. This research is a classroom action research by using two cycles, each cycle consisting of planning, implementation, observation and reflection with the subject of the research that fourth grade students of SD Negeri Cangkring 01 District Talang Tegal 2014 totaling 27 students consisting of 15 boys and 12 students putri.Hasil research shows that learning volleyball through a modified hot ball games can improve student learning outcomes of the first cycle to the second cycle. The average value of passing on learning outcomes in the first cycle (77.63), second cycle (79.78). Thus increasing the learning outcomes of the first cycle to the second cycle of (2.15). The number of students who otherwise completed the first cycle of 17 students (62.96%) and the second cycle 25 students (92.59%). The conclusion of this study, that learning the game of volleyball through a modified hot ball game on the fourth grade students of SDN 01 Cangkring Talang District of Tegal 2014 can improve student learning outcomes.

As video games continue to evolve, understanding what drives player enjoyment remains a key challenge. Player reviews provide valuable insights, but their unstructured nature makes large-scale analysis difficult. This study applies generative AI and machine learning, leveraging Microsoft Phi-4 small language model (SLM) and Google Cloud, to quantify and analyze game reviews from Steam and Meta Quest stores. The approach converts qualitative feedback into structured data, enabling comprehensive evaluation of key game design elements, monetization models, and platform-specific trends. The findings reveal distinct patterns in player preferences across PC and VR games, highlighting factors that contribute to higher player enjoyment. By using Google Cloud for large-scale data storage and processing, this study establishes a scalable framework for game review analysis. The study’s insights offer actionable guidance for game developers, helping optimize game mechanics, pricing strategies, and player engagement.

Comparing educational video games and text-based learning presents a significant challenge when trying to ensure a fair comparison between the two formats. Their distinct natures, particularly in terms of engagement and interactivity, introduce uncontrolled variables that are often not directly comparable between a video game and a text. Many prior studies rely on static text conditions that do not account for reader engagement, decision-making, or interaction patterns. This paper therefore proposes a structured game design approach to developing a text-based application that enables a more precise and controlled comparison with video game-based learning. Limes is a 2D educational video game set in Roman frontier Germany, designed to teach historical knowledge through exploration and interactive learning elements. The game features a structured narrative, Codex entries with historical information, and secondary missions, all contributing to the player's engagement and learning experience. The text version of Limes is not a game but replicates key gameplay characteristics in a structured text-based format, providing an alternative to traditional text conditions in experimental research. Unlike passive reading conditions, this Text-app is designed to be interactive and engaging in the same ways as its video game counterpart. Moreover, like the video game, the Text-app tracks player behaviour, such as time spent reading, engagement with Codex entries, and whether secondary mission texts have been read, using a five-star rating system mirroring the game’s assessment mechanics. The present paper discusses the development of the Limes Text-app and presents a game design framework for adapting educational games into experimentally viable text-based counterparts. The contribution is particularly relevant to research on video game effects in education adopting experimental designs. However, beyond its experimental utility, the newly developed text-app offers promising opportunities for other research areas, and we discuss how it can, for example, be used to assess and explore digital traces of learner characteristics and behaviours. To conclude, by ensuring structural comparability and capturing interaction data across formats, the Limes Text-app addresses a key methodological challenge in video game-based learning research: the difficulty of creating valid text-based control conditions that enable meaningful comparisons. While Limes has been developed in the context of history education, the impact is much broader as our design framework is adaptable and could be extended to other domains and narrative-based games.

This paper explores the innovative use of the Roblox Metaverse as a platform for teaching survival skills to children. Leveraging the engaging and interactive environment of Roblox, we developed a training program that combines educational content with immersive gameplay. The game design focuses on the core concepts of "Run, Hide, and Fight," providing practical scenarios where players can learn and practice essential survival skills. The paper discusses the development process, the impact of these game design principles on player engagement, and the potential benefits of using the Roblox Metaverse for educational purposes. A prototype educational game is presented, demonstrating how this method can effectively teach critical survival skills while maintaining a fun and captivating experience for young learners.

This article uses the example of high-end raiding in the online game World of Warcraft to investigate the power relationships between players and producers and to examine how the notion of struggle can inform an understanding of co-creative game design. The study is based on a recently published dissertation work and complemented by an interview with two expert interviewees. The results of the study show that while game designers still have a de-facto power position in that they can ban guilds, however, producers are not seen as legitimate when exercising this power. Instead raiding guilds are reluctantly refereeing their game themselves and treat the game company at times even as an inconvenience to be played around. This participatory power is not given to raiders but it is the outcome of a struggle with the producers of the game. Raiders also explicitly criticize the exploitation of their labor in game testing.

In this work, we propose a Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment methodology to achieve automatic video game balance. The balance task is modeled as a meta game, a game where actions change the rules of another base game. Based on the model of Reinforcement Learning (RL), an agent assumes the role of a game master and learns its optimal policy by playing the meta game. In this new methodology we extend traditional RL by adding the existence of a meta environment whose state transition depends on the evolution of a base environment. In addition, we propose a Multi Agent System training model for the game master agent, where it plays against multiple agent opponents, each with a distinct behavior and proficiency level while playing the base game. Our experiment is conducted on an adaptive grid-world environment in singleplayer and multiplayer scenarios. Our results are expressed in twofold: (i) the resulting decision making by the game master through gameplay, which must comply in accordance to an established balance objective by the game designer; (ii) the initial conception of a framework for automatic game balance, where the balance task design is reduced to the modulation of a reward function (balance reward), an action space (balance strategies) and the definition of a balance space state.

Although a change in running direction is one of the most important skills for ball game players, there is little information on the techniques involved, and the criteria used for technical evaluation. The purposes of this study were to develop indices for evaluating the techniques involved in changing the direction of running (i.e. cutting motion), and to compare the motions used by skilled and less-skilled groups to gain insight into the cutting motion technique. Twenty male university players of several ball games participated as subjects. They performed three kinds of 30-m zigzag runs with directional changes in angle of 30, 60 and 90 degrees, using the side-step and cross-step techniques. Their motions were videotaped with two digital video cameras operating at 60 Hz for three-dimensional motion analysis. The running time was measured by an electric timing device with photocell sensors. The velocity of the center of gravity (CG), angle of direction change, and angles of shank inward lean and thigh were calculated. We developed a cutting motion index that was calculated from the distance between the CG positions before and after cutting, the horizontal velocity of the CG at the beginning of cutting, and the elapsed time during cutting. The index gives a ratio of the time estimated from the horizontal velocity of the CG at the beginning of cutting relative to the actual elapsed time. The major results are summarized as follows: 1) For zigzag runs except for a 60-degree change in direction in the cross-step technique, there was no significant relationship between the cutting motion index and the angle of direction change. 2) In the side-step technique, the acceleration of the CG, the extension of the knee and hip joints, and the maximal forward lean angular velocity of the thigh in the second support phase were larger in the skilled group than in the less-skilled group. 3) In the cross-step technique, the deceleration of the CG and the flexion of the knee joint were smaller, but the acceleration of the CG and the maximal forward lean angular velocity of the thigh in the second support phase were larger in the skilled group than in the less-skilled group. These results indicate that the technique used to maintain running speed can be evaluated by the cutting motion index, and that the angle of direction change can be used as an index of direction change for the cutting motion. In the side- and cross-step techniques, a fast forward lean of the support thigh in the second support phase is likely to be an effective motion for maintaining the speed of the CG. In the side-step technique, extension of the knee joint in the support phase increases the forward lean angular velocity of the thigh. A fast forward lean of the support leg is effective in the cross-step technique.

The paper presents the design and evaluation of an original Ambient Interactive Storybook (AIS) for children, including its platform, the background story, and 10 full body interactive games. The evaluation, which focused on the user's physical experience and elements important to the designer, has been methodologically derived from the Krofli?'s and Laban's framework Body, Space, Time and Relationship, and additionally supported by sport science measurements. An experiment with 8 participants playing 10 games for 20 min was conducted and recorded to a digital video. Participants' physical experience was evaluated through the analysis of postures, the quality of the movement, the body parts used in the interaction, the playing area, the direction of movement, direction of gaze, tempo, dynamics and the quantity of motion (QoM). Results of the experiment are discussed in relation and with implications for game design. Conclusions are drawn with the summary of main findings, to better understand the mechanisms and principles involved the design of user's physical activity in full body interactive games for children. The theoretical work of Laban and Krofli? proved to be useful for interaction and games design in the transition from desktop to full body interactive games.