Execution Evaluation of AODV Protocol Using NS2 Simulator for Emergency Automobile

Ad Hoc Routing with Distributed Ordered Sequences

This paper presents a resilient routing algorithm that is more suitable for a Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) with node quick moving or node sparse, than traditional routing algorithms such as Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing. Since AODV routing in MANETs is known for its advantageous properties, the proposed routing algorithm is based on the AODV, and called RAODV (Resilient AODV). In the route discovery phase, it differs from AODV, which only establishes one routing path from a source node to the destination node, whereas RAODV establishes as many routes as possible. Thus, when the primary route breaks, the node can immediately adopt an alternative route without further route research effort. If no possible alternative route exists, the node will transmit the route break information backward to instruct the previous node on the reverse route to select an alternative one, and so on. The proposed RAODV can reduce the number of route rediscovery procedures, and thus improve the packet loss rate and transmission delay, especially in sparse MANETs. Simulator ns2 was used to evaluate the performance of RAODV. In some cases, the proposed RAODV was able to reduce the packet loss rate by 72.61% compared to traditional AODV.

Routing protocols are fundamental in establishing linkages and communication amongst nodes in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANET). Since Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocol shuns loops and minimizes route broadcasts its predominantly utilized in MANET. This systematic review sought to uncover approaches employed in extending AODV for performance improvement in MANET, their limitations, and AODV characteristics that are extendable. Barbara Kitchenham's original guidelines (2007) guided the research, while studies were retrieved from IEEE, Science Direct, Wiley, Semantic Scholar, ACM Digital Library, EBSCOhost, and Google Scholar databases. The common approaches employed are consideration of parameters to improve quality of service, artificial intelligence and machine learning, and use of the signal strength. The limitations of the approaches can be optimized for improved performance in terms of reduced control traffic and packet loss, efficient bandwidth and memory utilization, reduced processing costs, and energy consumption. The AODV characteristics commonly extended are route discovery, selection, and maintenance. Future work could investigate clustering and zoning, and caching mechanisms approaches to enrich the reliability, performance, and efficiency of AODV protocol.

Several research effort in recent years has shown its significant interest in the development of security measure in the routing of Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET). Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol has been one of the basic protocol that is modified to cope with security demands. This paper present an analytical model to evaluate the performance of AODV variant that is developed to be secure with malicious node detection and trust mechanism. Since the performance of MANET is tightly depends on the underlying topology of the nodes, route establishment may fail due to node's movement or malicious activity. The analytical model aims to provide the basic performance insight in the form of the route establishment probability of the MANET with and without malicious nodes. The model is important for MANET designer to optimize the connectivity for all nodes.

Mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is a collection of movable nodes capable of self-routing, constraining energy and decentralized handling of nodes. It faces many challenges due to uncertainty of network topology i.e. security and congestion. In this paper we propose a novel algorithm for intrusion detection against attacks such as probing, Denial-of-service (DoS), vampire and User-To-Root (U2R) in a MANET environment. The attack detection has been carried out using a profile (behavior) analysis and a confusion matrix (True positives, True negatives, False positives, False negatives). The performance of a standard Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol has been reported for all 4 types of attack in a network simulator-2(ns-2) environment. To the best of authors' knowledge, this is the first paper reporting a novel intrusion detection algorithm using behavior analysis for an AODV protocol in a MANET environment.

The security of wireless networks has been a constant topic in the recent years. With the advance of wireless networks, building reliable and secured communication is becoming extremely important. Wireless security is a mechanism of preventing unauthorized access or damage to computers using wireless networks. A mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is a self-organizing system of mobile nodes that communicate with each other through wireless links with no fixed infrastructure or centralized administration. This paper presents potential security attacks on Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol and their countermeasure. IETF standardized AODV and considered as one of the most popular and promising on-demand routing protocols because of its lower network overhead and algorithm complexity. AODV protocol does not store all the routing information in its routing table and this causes potential security threat to the wireless networks. In this paper, we consider various known security attacks and in- specific blackhole attack on AODV and propose a countermeasure to thwart blackhole attack.

Recently mobile ad-hoc networks (MANET) have found widespread applications. In this infrastructure-less networks the routes have to be refreshed often due to mobility of nodes which also acting as routers. Many ad-hoc routing protocols have been proposed, of which on-demand routing protocols are very popular. To meet the scarce of network resources, the need of the time is to develop a protocol which makes efficient use of resources. In this paper we propose a mobility adaptive cross layer design to enhance the performance of ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol by establishing stable routes. The adaptive decision making according to the speed of mobile nodes on route request (RREQ) packet forwarding results in stable routes. Comparing with the basic AODV protocol, the new cross layer algorithm has better performance as shown with the simulation results obtained using the network simulator, GloMoSim.

In intelligent transportation systems, the collaboration between vehicles and the road side units is essential to bring these systems to realization. The emerging Vehicular Ad Hoc Network (VANET) is becoming more and more important as it provides intelligent transportation application, comfort, safety, entertainment for people in vehicles. In order to provide stable routes and to get good performance in VANET, there is a need of proper routing protocols must be designed. In this paper, we are working with the very well-known ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol. The existing Routing protocol AODV-L which is based on the Link expiration time is extended to propose a more reliable AODV-AD which is based on multichannel MAC protocol. For the performance evaluation of routing protocols, a simulation tool ‘NS2’ has been used. Simulation results show that the proposed AODV-AD protocol can achieves better performances in forms of high Route stability, Packet Delivery ratio and packet loss rate than traditional AODV-L and traditional AODV.

Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) features such as open medium, dynamic topology, lack of centralised management and lack of infrastructure expose them to a number of security attacks. Black hole attack is one type of attack that is more common in MANET reactive routing protocols such as Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR). Black hole attack takes advantage of route discovery process in reactive routing protocols. In this type of attack, a malicious node misleads other nodes in the network by pretending to have the shortest and updated route to a target node whose packets it wants to interrupt. It then redirects all packets destined to a target node to itself and discards them instead of forwarding. This paper analyses the performance of AODV and DSR when attacked by black hole, by varying the mobility of the nodes in the network. The analysis is carried out by simulating scenarios of AODV based MANET and DSR based MANET using Network Simulator 2 (NS-2) and introducing the black hole attack in each of the scenarios. The different scenarios are generated by changing the mobility of the nodes. The performance metrics that are used to do the analysis are throughput, packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay. The simulation results show that the performance of both AODV and DSR degrades in the presence of black hole attack. Throughput and packet delivery ratio decrease when the network is attacked by black hole because the malicious node absorbs or discards some of the packets. End-to-end delay is also reduced in the presence of a black hole attack because a malicious node pretends to have a valid route to destination without checking the routing table, and therefore shortens the route discovery process. The results also show that throughput decreases slightly when mobility of the nodes is increased in the network. The increase in the speed of the nodes decreases both end-to-end delay and packet delivery ratio.

In order to have continuous connectivity for data transmission in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), it is necessary to establish stable path with long life time. Even though much work has been carried out to maintain the path for a long life time, it is necessary to give more importance to consider stability of the nodes during path discovery phase itself. To increase the stability of the path, this paper proposes "Transition Rate, Trend and Signal Strength based Stable Routing Protocol (TTSSRP)", considering transition trend of a node along with signal strength for a predetermined period during route discovery process. During a predetermined period, several samples are collected from a node. The total number of transitions and rate of change of signal strength with respect to first position are computed for all sampling time to find stability of a particular node so as to select as one of the nodes in the path. This procedure is followed until the destination is reached. Simulation results confirm the superiority of TTSSRP over the Ad-hoc on-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol and Relative Link and Path Stability based Routing Protocol (RLPSR) in terms of packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay and route life time.

A black-hole attack in the Mobile Ad-hoc NETwork (MANET) is an attack occurs due to malicious nodes, which attracts the data packets by falsely advertising a fresh route to the destination. In this paper, we present a clustering approach in Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol for the detection and prevention of black-hole attack in MANETs. In this approach every member of the cluster will ping once to the cluster head, to detect the peculiar difference between the number of data packets received and forwarded by the node. If anomalousness is perceived, all the nodes will obscure the malicious nodes from the network.

Wireless sensor network (WSN) with several sensors is used to group measurements of certain physical quantities or environmental conditions, including sound, temperature, pressure, vibration, motion, or pollution, at various locations and ranges. In WSNs, several protocols address the issue of routing. Sensor nodes in WSN usually have limited energy resources and storage capacities. Therefore, the issue of energy usage in sensors and protocols is very important. This paper analyzes and compares the quality of service (QoS) performances of three important routing protocols of the mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) including Ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV), dynamic source routing (DSR), and destination sequenced distance vector (DSDV), in a smart building case study. The QoS evaluation metrics include residual energy of nodes, instant throughput (IT), average throughput (AT), packet delivery ratio (PDR), packet loss ratio (PLR), and route discovery latency (RDL) based on IEEE 802.15.4 MAC protocol standard. The simulation is carried out using NS2, and the WSN has 16 fixed and 4 mobility nodes with different speeds and paths. The simulation results illustrate that average throughput in AODV is 1.985118 (kbps), however, the figures for DSR and DSDV are 1.977780 and 1.720700 (kbps), respectively. PDR, also, in DSR stands at 1.0, but the figures for AODV and DSDV are lower with the range of 0.999572 and 0.997930, respectively. Overall, The DSR protocol provides a better performance compared to AODV and DSDV routing protocols in terms of PLR and PDR. Also, AODV has better efficiency in RDL and AT compared to other assumed protocols.

Fog-based MANET (Mobile Ad hoc networks) is a novel paradigm of a mobile ad hoc network with the advantages of both mobility and fog computing. Meanwhile, as traditional routing protocol, ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol has been applied widely in fog-based MANET. Currently, how to improve the transmission performance and enhance security are the two major aspects in AODV’s research field. However, the researches on joint energy efficiency and security seem to be seldom considered. In this paper, we propose a source anonymity-based lightweight secure AODV (SAL-SAODV) routing protocol to meet the above requirements. In SAL-SAODV protocol, source anonymous and secure transmitting schemes are proposed and applied. The scheme involves the following three parts: the source anonymity algorithm is employed to achieve the source node, without being tracked and located; the improved secure scheme based on the polynomial of CRC-4 is applied to substitute the RSA digital signature of SAODV and guarantee the data integrity, in addition to reducing the computation and energy consumption; the random delayed transmitting scheme (RDTM) is implemented to separate the check code and transmitted data, and achieve tamper-proof results. The simulation results show that the comprehensive performance of the proposed SAL-SAODV is a trade-off of the transmission performance, energy efficiency, and security, and better than AODV and SAODV.

The drastic increase in the number of wireless devices and bandwidth requirements, most networks have evolved to distributed networks rather than central client-server configuration. In order to cater a larger number of devices, that is not centrally controlled, a routing scheme is needed that can work with limited configured devices, supports fully dynamic and distributed configurations, and does not overwhelm the network with control messages for the destination that exists in the network but has no message to send. Similarly, this work is focusing on performance analysis of Ad hoc on-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol to create a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) environment. The simulation has been designed for the real environment of NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, Pakistan, where several buildings of various departments need to communicate with each other without compromising the node's performance with the change in the network occur. The simulation results show that the AODV provides better network performance with fewer packet drops and consistent throughput through the network for varying speeds and locations. The results proved that as compared to Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV), the end-to-end delay had shown not much improvement, but comparative delays are observed.

6LoWPAN has become a new technology to provide the Internet connectivity to the traditional wireless sensor network (WSN). In order to route the delivered packet from originator to destination nodes, the simplified Ad-hoc On- Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol for 6LoWPAN with 6LoWPAN Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (LOAD) has been introduced. However, the conceptual LOAD routing protocol has yet proposed any path recovery mechanism in 6LoWPAN. In this paper, an originator recognition (OR) path recovery mechanism is proposed for the 6LoWPAN LOAD-based routing protocol. In this proposed mechanism, the participated nodes will memorize the originator address attached within data packet during the data transmission. When a link break happens on destination path, the LOAD protocol message will be amended by inserting an identity key, which is a memorial of originator address, in the generated route error (RERR) message before transmitted towards the originator for the failure notification. This identity key is then used by the originator to initialize path recovery in order to retransmit the failed data packet to the unreachable destination node. Instead of using MAC address in the LOAD routing protocol, IP address is used in the proposed Originator Recognition (OR) path recovery mechanism (OR-LOAD) routing protocol which is designed for the global routing. The proposed OR-LOAD routing protocol has been examined under noisy 6LoWPAN environment in Qualnet simulator. Its performance is then evaluated and compared to AODV routing protocol in terms of packet delivery ratio and average energy consumption. The simulation results show that the proposed OR-LOAD outperforms AODV with packet delivery ratio of 19.4%, and with comparable average energy consumption in both routing protocols.