Finland Education System

Overcoming resistance.

Different Versions of the Easterlin Paradox: New Evidence for European Countries

Aims. To assess an empirical basis for cross‐national and cross‐cultural comparisons of four aspects of the association between alcohol consumption and homicide: the relative strength of the association, the fraction of homicide rates attributable to alcohol consumption, possible gender differences in the association between consumption and victim rates and possible variations in beverage‐specific effects on homicide rates. Design, setting and participants. Time series analyses on differenced series of annual aggregate‐level data on alcohol sales and homicide rates for the period 1950‐95 were performed for each individual country. Estimates were pooled across countries within three regions of alleged differences in drinking pattern: southern Europe, central Europe and northern Europe. Findings. Total alcohol sales were positively and statistically significantly associated with homicide rates in five countries. Beer sales were positively and statistically significantly associated with homicide rates in four countries, wine sales in another two countries, and spirits sales in two countries. The effect of alcohol sales was stronger for male homicide rates than for female homicide rates, and the estimated fraction of homicides that could be attributed to alcohol consumption appeared to be of the same magnitude in the three regions. When estimates were pooled across countries, the strongest association between total sales and homicides was found in the northern European countries and the weakest, but still statistically significant, in the southern European countries. Pooled estimates showed that beer sales were positively and significantly associated with homicide rates in all three European regions, whereas wine sales were positively and moderately associated with homicide rates only in the traditional wine drinking cultures in southern Europe. Conclusion. The findings support the hypothesis that homicide rates are influenced by alcohol sales and more so in the northern European countries where the drinking culture is, to a larger extent, characterized by heavy drinking episodes. Moreover, the findings are suggestive of beverage‐specific effects on violent behaviour being contingent upon characteristics of the drinking culture.

PurposeThe aim of this study is to explore which factors of entrepreneurship and innovation influence economic development under the quadruple helix model, contrasting Southern and Northern Europe.Design/methodology/approachIn this study, secondary data are collected from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor databases, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and Global Competitiveness Index, for four countries in the North and four Southern European countries, for the period from 2007 to 2015. Data was analyzed with SPSS 22.0 software and subjected to several multivariate statistical tests.FindingsThe results show a statistically significant difference in the variables of the four quadruple helix model dimensions. This means that Northern European countries (Finland, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden) display better results on innovation and entrepreneurship than Southern European countries (Spain, Greece, Italy and Portugal). The results also showed that per capita gross domestic expenditure on R&D is positively related to government and university dimensions, with significant differences between Southern and Northern European countries.Originality/valueIt is hoped that this study will contribute to new evidence on the factors of innovation and entrepreneurship that are decisive for economic development. To the traditional quadruple helix model, control variables were added to meet the endogenous characteristics of the countries.

BackgroundProlonged sitting is an emerging health risk. However, multi-country comparative sitting data are sparse. This paper reports the prevalence and correlates of sitting time in 32 European countries.MethodsData from the Eurobarometer 64.3 study were used, which included nationally representative samples (n = 304-1,102) from 32 European countries. Face-to-face interviews were conducted during November and December 2005. Usual weekday sitting time was assessed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (short-version). Sitting time was compared by country, age, gender, years of education, general health status, usual activity and physical activity. Multivariable-adjusted analyses assessed the odds of belonging to the highest sitting quartile.ResultsData were available for 27,637 adults aged 15–98 years. Overall, mean reported weekday sitting time was 309 min/day (SD 184 min/day). There was a broad geographical pattern and some of the lowest amounts of daily sitting were reported in southern (Malta and Portugal means 194–236 min/day) and eastern (Romania and Hungary means 191–276 min/day) European countries; and some of the highest amounts of daily sitting were reported in northern European countries (Germany, Benelux and Scandinavian countries; means 407–335 min/day). Multivariable-adjusted analyses showed adults with low physical activity levels (OR = 5.10, CI95 = 4.60-5.66), those with high sitting in their main daily activity (OR = 2.99, CI95 = 2.74-3.25), those with a bad/very bad general health state (OR = 1.87, CI95 = 1.63-2.15) and higher education levels (OR = 1.48, CI95 = 1.38-1.59) were more likely to be in the highest quartile of daily sitting time. Adults within Greece (OR = 2.91, CI95 = 2.51-3.36) and Netherlands (OR = 2.56, CI95 = 2.22-2.94) were most likely to be in the highest quartile. High-sit/low-active participants comprised 10.1% of the sample. Adults self-reporting bad/very bad general health state (OR = 4.74, CI95 = 3.97-5.65), those within high sitting in their main daily activities (OR = 2.87, CI95 = 2.52-3.26) and adults aged ≥65 years (OR = 1.53, CI95 = 1.19-1.96) and were more likely to be in the high-sit/low-active group.ConclusionsWeekday sitting time and its demographic correlates varied considerably across European countries, with adults in north-western European countries sitting the most. Sitting is prevalent across Europe and merits attention by preventive interventions.

Trends in mortality from breast cancer over the period 1970-2000 were analysed for 38 European countries and the European Union (EU). Age-standardized mortality rates were computed by the direct method, and joinpoint analysis was used to identify significant changes in rates. A favourable pattern in breast cancer mortality in the 25 countries of the EU (as defined in May 2004) was observed after 1989, leading to a fall in overall rates from 21.3/100,000 in 1990 to 18.9 in 2000. The annual percentage change in the EU was -2.1% between 1995 and 2000. Most northern European countries, including several Scandinavian countries and the UK, but also some central and southern European countries like Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland, Italy and Spain showed appreciable falls in rates (i.e. between 8 and 19% in the last 5 calendar years). The declines were larger below age 50, approaching 20% in several countries. The falls were smaller in France, Greece, Portugal and most eastern European countries. In the Russian Federation, all-age breast cancer mortality increased from 16.1 to 17.3/100,000 (+7.5% over the last 5 calendar years). These patterns reflect converging trends in breast cancer rates across Europe, which can be related to the more uniform reproductive and lifestyle habits. The fall in breast cancer mortality observed in most European countries over the last decade has to be attributed to earlier detection and improved treatment, although the definite reasons for the different trends in various countries remain at least in part unclear.

Despite changes in social norms and policies, on average across 25 European countries, there remains a gap of around 15% in hourly earnings between similarly-qualified men and women. This raises inequality and limits growth by preventing women from reaching their full labour market potential. Using individual-level data, this paper quantifies the main drivers of gender wage gaps with a view to devising effective policies to reduce them. The findings suggest that, on average, “sticky floors” related to social norms, gender stereotyping and discrimination account for 40% of the gender wage gap, while the “glass ceiling” related to the motherhood penalty accounts for around 60%. The importance of the “glass ceiling” is especially large in most Northern and Western European countries, while “sticky floors” explain the major part of the gap in most Central and Eastern European countries. These results imply that most Northern and Western European countries need to prioritise policies to address the motherhood penalty, such as further promoting flexitime and telework and supporting early childcare. Most Central and Eastern European as well as Southern European countries, where “sticky floors” are more important, additionally need to prioritise equal pay and pay transparency laws, measures to address gender stereotyping, competition in product markets, as well as higher wage floors where they are currently low.

(ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.)1. PremiseDuring the last four decades of the 20th century, the average total fertility rate (TFR) has continuously dropped in Europe, as it generally has in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. The aggregate trend covers considerable differences across Europe, with the main differences appearing between northern and southern European countries (Eurostat 2012).During the same period, important changes have also occurred in the labour market arrangements of both men and women, with changes in individuals' and couples' economic conditions. Whereas by the 1980s the fall in fertility was coupled with a rise in female employment, since the late 1980s the fall has been accompanied by a rise in unemployment, particularly among women.Explaining the determinants of such a fall in fertility and the links with changes in the labour market statuses of both men and women has become a major topic over the last years (D'Addio and Mira d'Ercole 2005; Kreyenfeld 2010).The rise in unemployment for women and men in southern and central European countries that occurred during the 1990s has been proposed as an explanation for the more pronounced decrease in the TFR in these countries, as in other countries with low female labour force participation rates (Ahn and Mira 2002; Adsera 2005; Engelhardt and Prskawetz 2004). This evidence highlights the need to further examine the role of unemployment in fertility behaviour.This paper seeks to describe the connections between fertility and unemployment in Italy from a gender-based and geographic perspective. Italian workers have experienced a rising trend of unemployment - with gender and regional differences - since the mid-nineties, resulting in a feeling of uncertainty about the future. We are in agreement with the hypothesis that macro-level economic conditions are likely to be related to fertility (Brewster and Rindfuss 2000): in particular, economic uncertainty can induce a short-term reduction in fertility that is presumably due to the postponement of decisions to have an (additional) child until the economy recovers.We utilised time series of aggregate data on fertility and unemployment during the interval 1995-2012, which includes the period of economic downturn that began at the end of 2007.We began from the hypothesis that the connection between unemployment and fertility differs among the various Italian regions, and we used a regression dynamic model to evaluate whether changes in fertility in different Italian geographic areas are more related to changes in male or female unemployment, as well as the strength of the link. Moreover, we paid particular attention to specific temporal links between the two series in different geographical areas.The structure of the paper is as follows:- Discussion of the literature and previous research on the relationship between fertility and unemployment of both men and women. We utilised aggregate data, but we also referred to studies of individual-level data to understand how the issue has been addressed by different approaches;- Discussion of these relationships in Italy within the European context;- Methodological approach and analysis of aggregate trends of fertility and unemployment in Italy by gender and geographic area; and- Discussion of the results.2. Unemployment and fertility: A complex relationshipA modern discussion on fertility in developed countries began in the 1960s and focused on the importance of socio-economic factors at the community or country level, 4 the incompatibility between work and family, increasing female education, and the roles of women in different contexts related to specific welfare policies (Oppenheimer 1988; McDonald 2006; Pison 2009).The decrease in fertility rates in the 1960s and 1970s in most industrialised economies was correlated with an increase in female employment (Adsera 2004). …

Burden of liver disease in Europe: Epidemiology and analysis of risk factors to identify prevention policies

Consumers’ health risk–benefit perception of seafood and attitude toward the marine environment: Insights from five European countries

Background: Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) is defined as the type of hyperglycemia diagnosed for the first-time during pregnancy, presenting with intermediate glucose levels between normal levels for pregnancy and glucose levels diagnostic of diabetes in the non-pregnant state. We aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze studies of prevalence of GDM in European countries at regional and sub-regional levels, according to age, trimester, body weight, and GDM diagnostic criteria. Methods: Systematic search was conducted in five databases to retrieve studies from 2014 to 2019 reporting the prevalence of GDM in Europe. Two authors have independently screened titles and abstracts and full text according to eligibility using Covidence software. A random-effects model was used to quantify weighted GDM prevalence estimates. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute criteria was used to assess the risk of bias. Results: From the searched databases, 133 research reports were deemed eligible and included in the meta-analysis. The research reports yielded 254 GDM-prevalence studies that tested 15,572,847 pregnant women between 2014 and 2019. The 133 research reports were from 24 countries in Northern Europe (44.4%), Southern Europe (27.1%), Western Europe (24.1%), and Eastern Europe (4.5%). The overall weighted GDM prevalence in the 24 European countries was estimated at 10.9% (95% CI: 10.0–11.8, I2: 100%). The weighted GDM prevalence was highest in the Eastern Europe (31.5%, 95% CI: 19.8–44.6, I2: 98.9%), followed by in Southern Europe (12.3%, 95% CI: 10.9–13.9, I2: 99.6%), Western Europe (10.7%, 95% CI: 9.5¬–12.0, I2: 99.9%), and Northern Europe (8.9%, 95% CI: 7.9–10.0, I2: 100). GDM prevalence was 2.14-fold increased in pregnant women with maternal age ≥30 years (versus 15-29 years old), 1.47-fold if the diagnosis was made in the third trimester (versus second trimester), and 6.79- fold in obese and 2.29-fold in overweight women (versus normal weight). Conclusions: In Europe, GDM is significant in pregnant women, around 11%, with the highest prevalence in pregnant women of Eastern European countries (31.5%). Findings have implications to guide vigilant public health awareness campaigns about the risk factors associated with developing GDM.

The nutritional ecology of the invasive maize pest Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Chrysomelidae, Galerucinae) was studied with regard to larval and adult food use and performance on various host plants. The adult beetles are feeding mainly on aboveground maize tissues, while the larvae are root feeders on maize and other Poaceae species. This leaf beetle was first detected 1992 near Belgrade and has spread into 15 European countries already. Models predict infestation to occur in all but northern European countries in the following years.The results of the study aim towards a more detailed understanding of processes which determine the invasion potential and success of this pest species. The use of different food resources by adult beetles in Southern Hungary were studied over a 10 week period. In order to evaluate the use of different maize tissues a gut content analyses was performed. Furthermore a detailed pollen analyses was carried out to estimate the use of alternative pollen sources.The adult beetles showed a high adaptability with regard to their nutritional ecology in their new range. The majority of all flowering weeds were used as alternative pollen sources. The use of maize tissue and pollen from alternative host plants by adult beetle was depending on maize phenology, diversity of flowering weeds in a given habitat and the sex of the beetles. The performance of larvae on maize cultivars from different European countries and several alternative host plants was tested. A new method was developed that allowed to measure how efficient D. v. virgifera larvae performed in transferring plant biomass into own body biomass.Larval performance showed significant differences on different European maize varieties. The larvae performed well on several other grass species which are common weeds in maize fields and also on some monocot crops as winter wheat. They were unable to use roots of dicot weeds as for example Amaranthus sp. Larval performance on different maize varieties and alternative host plants was related to the total nitrogen content, the C/N ratio and the phytosterol composition encountered in the host plant tissues. The results are discussed with regard to counteract the invasion and damage potential by developing measures of integrated pest management.

The international systems of indicators for the comparative assessment of the sustainability component do not always cover the Eastern European region, which can be considered an obstacle to the global understanding of the problems and possible solutions in the reform of national pension systems. At the same time, in the conditions when pension systems face the strong influence of several factors, and the operation and administration of national pension systems represent a challenge for most countries in the Eastern European region, it is important to determine the system of indicators, which would ensure a sustainable reform thereof. The article presents views on the systematization of the factors that influence the sustainable reforms of the national pension systems and the results of the study on the relationship between the factor of economic growth and the aging of the population, carried out for 10 countries in the Eastern European region and a chronological series 2010-2021. The data obtained on the correlation coefficient between economic growth and the rate of the elderly population confi rm recent research by other authors, carried out for 15 European countries during the same period, according to which the rate of the elderly population has a medium-level impact on economic growth for at least half of analyzed countries and for another third of countries there is no relationship between the economy and the 65+ population. The strength of the relationship between the economy and the elderly population in the period 2010-2021 was very weak in all countries in the Eastern European region. Moreover, in the Czech Republic and at the level of the region, this dependence could be considered as non-existent, the values of the correlation coefficients being close to 0. Only for Slovakia the correlation coefficient shows a slightly stronger but weak and opposite dependence, as for Belarus, Moldova and Russia. The author’s analysis does not validate the increasing burden of population aging in Eastern European economies, which means the lack of need to reorient public social spending towards higher age-related spending in the analyzed period. The study confirms the contradictory nature of the factor of raising the retirement age, thus, it could be removed from the list of beneficial factors of sustainable pension reform, and the cause-and-effect relationship between economic growth and the rate of the elderly population could be neglected. This study complements the data on the differences between Eastern European countries and Western and Northern European countries and would have an impact on policies to reform national pension systems, especially in the context of the political paradigm that supports the concept of a negative impact of aging on economic growth.

Inequalities in lung cancer mortality by the educational level in 10 European populations

Urine estrogen profiles in European countries with high or low breast cancer rates