High Temperature Steam Electrolysis Process Performance and Cost Estimates

The Very High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (VHTR) coupled to the High Temperature Steam Electrolysis (HTSE) process is one of two reference integrated systems being investigated by the U.S. Department of Energy and Idaho National Laboratory for the production of hydrogen. In this concept the VHTR outlet temperature of 900 °C provides thermal energy and high efficiency electricity for the electrolysis of steam in the HTSE process. In the second reference system the Sulfur Iodine (SI) process is coupled to the VHTR to produce hydrogen thermochemically. In the HyPEP project we are investigating and characterizing these two reference systems with respect to production, operability, and safety performance criteria. Under production, plant configuration and working fluids are being studied for their effect on efficiency. Under operability, control strategies are being developed with the goal of maintaining equipment within operating limits while meeting changes in demand. Safety studies are to investigate plant response for equipment failures. Specific objectives in FY07 were (1) to develop HyPEP Beta and verification and validation (V&V) plan, (2) to perform steady state system integration, (3) to perform parametric studies with various working fluids and power conversion unit (PCU) configurations, (4) the study of design options such as pressure, temperature, etc. (5) to develop a control strategy and (6) to perform transient analyses for plant upsets, control strategy, etc for hydrogen plant with PCU. This report describes the progress made in FY07 in each of the above areas. (1) The HyPEP code numeric scheme and Graphic User Interface have been tested and refined since the release of the alpha version a year ago. (2) The optimal size and design condition for the intermediate heat exchanger, one of the most important components for integration of the VHTR and HTSE plants, was estimated. (3) Efficiency calculations were performed for a variety of working fluids for this reference design. (4) Efficiency improvements over the reference VHTR/HTSE plant were investigated for an alternative design that directly couples a High Temperature Steam Rankin Cycle (HTRC) to the HTSE process. Integration of the VHTR with SI process plants was begun. (5) Plant control studies showed that inventory control in the VHTR plant and flow control in the HTSE plant is effective in maintaining hot-side temperatures near constant during load change. (6) Dynamic calculations showed that thermal transients arising in the chemical plant are strongly damped at the reactor resulting in a stable combined plant.

Two-dimensional simulation and critical efficiency analysis of high-temperature steam electrolysis system for hydrogen production

The integrated system of a Very High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (VHTR) and a High Temperature Steam Electrolysis (HTSE) process is one of systems being investigated by the U.S. Department of Energy and Idaho National Laboratory. This system will produce hydrogen by utilizing a highly efficient VHTR with an outlet temperature of 900 °C and supplying necessary energy and electricity to the HTSE process for electrolysis of high temperature steam. This report includes a description of five configurations including an indirect parallel cycle, an indirect serial cycle, a direct serial cycle, a steam combined cycle, and a reheat cycle. HYSYS simulations were performed for each of these configurations coupled to a HTSE process. Final results are presented along with parametric studies and process optimization.

The very high temperature gas-cooled reactor (VHTR) is envisioned as a single- or dual-purpose reactor for electricity and hydrogen generation. The concept has average coolant temperatures above 1173 K (900°C) and operational fuel temperatures above 1523 K (1250°C). The concept provides the potential for increased energy conversion efficiency and for high-temperature process heat application in addition to power generation. While all the high-temperature gas-cooled reactor concepts have sufficiently high temperatures to support process heat applications, such as hydrogen production, tar sands, oil shale, desalination, or cogenerative processes, the VHTR’s higher temperatures can be detrimental to safety if a loss-of-coolant accident occurs and causes the mechanical strength degradation of the supporting graphite in the lower plenum. Following the loss of coolant through the break and coolant depressurization, air will enter the core through the break by molecular diffusion or density-gradient–driven stratified flow phenomena and ultimately by natural convection, leading to oxidation of the in-core graphite structure and fuel. The oxidation will accelerate heatup of the reactor core and the release of toxic gases (CO and CO2) and fission products. Thus, without any effective countermeasures, a pipe break may lead to significant fuel damage and fission product release. Therefore, there was a need to develop a computer code that can be used for VHTR air ingress-related graphite oxidation analyses. Prior to the start of the Republic of Korea/United States International Nuclear Energy Research Initiative collaboration, no computer codes were available that had been sufficiently developed and validated to reliably simulate an air ingress phenomenon in the VHTR. Therefore, we have worked for the past 3 yr on developing and validating advanced computational methods for simulating air ingress in the VHTR. The Idaho National Laboratory is developing a system integration model of VHTR and hydrogen production plant. GAMMA code is being considered to be an integrated computer tool to analyze the thermal hydraulics of the coupled plant. Computer models for a high-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) process were developed and were implemented in an overall system process optimization code, HYSYS. The HTSE model will be implemented into GAMMA code as the integrated computer tool.This paper describes the governing equations and numerical methods used in GAMMA code and presents a portion of verification of the GAMMA code along with turbomachinery models and HTSE models that will be linked to GAMMA code.

Stable solid oxide electrolysis cells with SSF-based symmetrical electrode for direct high-temperature steam electrolysis

Complementary techniques for solid oxide electrolysis cell characterisation at the micro- and nano-scale

In this paper, the integration of geothermal energy with high temperature electrolysis to produce low-carbon hydrogen is investigated. Geothermal energy provides a stable energy flux, allowing to achieve high electrolyzer utilization factors, the compatibility with industrial processes and reduced load oscillations on electrolyzers. If steam-fed high temperature electrolysis is employed a highly efficient low-temperature heat exploitation process is made possible, with an electrolysis electrical efficiency above 80 % on LHV basis. The study identifies the best design for the integration of high temperature SOEC (Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell) electrolysis technology and geothermal energy and provides a techno-economic assessment, computing its performance and the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH). To feed the 3 MW electrolyzer the system exploits a hot geothermal fluid, both to generate steam and power (via ORC). A model of the system is set up with Aspen Plus software. A set of low-enthalpy geothermal resources ranging from 85 °C to 160 °C are considered. The two technologies work synergistically, leading to an efficient and stable hydrogen production. The use of SOEC electrolysis allows to produce 34 % to 38 % more hydrogen than alkaline electrolysis. The economic evaluation shows an exponential increase in the geothermal plant specific Capex for decreasing geothermal resource temperature, leading to an analogous trend in the LCOH. A benchmark case is defined coupling a PEM electrolyzer with a PV plant. The LCOH grows from a value 15 % lower than the benchmark in the 160 °C geothermal brine case, to a value 20 % higher than the benchmark in the 85 °C case. The breakeven point is found at 98 °C. This promising result is even more valuable considering the high dispatchability and stability of the output.

Review: 22 refs.

High-temperature electrolysis for large-scale hydrogen production from nuclear energy – Experimental investigations

B-site doped, A-site deficient perovskite oxide titanates with formula La0.4Sr0.4Mn+xTi1−xO3−γ−δ (M = Fe3+ or Ni2+; x = 0.06; γ = (4 − n)x/2) were employed as solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) cathodes for hydrogen production via high temperature steam electrolysis at 900 °C. A-site deficiency provided additional driving force for the exsolution of a proportion of B-site dopants at the surface in the form of metallic nanoparticles under reducing SOEC cathode operating conditions. In the case of La0.4Sr0.4Fe0.06Ti0.94O2.97, this represents the first time that Fe0 has been exsolved from a perovskite in such a way. Exsolution was due in part to the inability of the host lattice to accommodate vacancies (introduced (δ) oxygen vacancies () and fixed A-site () and inherent (γ) oxygen vacancies) beyond a certain limit. The presence of electrocatalytically active Fe0 or Ni0 nanoparticles and higher concentrations dramatically lowered the activation barrier to steam electrolysis compared to the parent material (x = 0). The use of defect chemistry to drive the exsolution of less reducible dopant cations could conceivably be extended to produce new catalytically active perovskites with unique properties.

To improve solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) system designs and fabrication quality, endurance testing of SOEC systems provides a proving ground on which real-world usage can be simulated, and quality assurance issues can be identified early on. A test facility at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) was designed, built, and operated to facilitate endurance testing of a reversible system by Oxeon Energy. Designated Emerald, the test facility is currently the only test facility at INL designed to allow both SOEC and solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) testing of the same module. To safely operate a reversible SOEC test facility, several safety features are required, and a hazard and operability analysis is of Emerald is discussed here. Design challenges due to differences in the endothermic SOEC and exothermic SOFC reactions were addressed in the process recuperators. Controls for the Emerald test facility were built in an open-source JavaScript runtime environment, Node.js and executed on a Linux-based industrial controller. The Oxeon Energy module has been successfully brought up to SOEC ready conditions. Initial operations of the Emerald test facility are being improved to eventually achieve non-stop operations and thousands of hours of testing of both SOEC and SOFC.

The high temperature steam electrolysis (HTE) represents one of the most promising technologies for mass hydrogen production. A commercial K41X steel (AISI441) containing 18 wt. % of chromium was tested as interconnect for solid oxide electrolyser cells (SOEC). In a previous paper, it was shown that the uncoated alloy is not suitable for SOEC interconnect application at 800°C in O2-H2O atmosphere. It was also proved that the application of a LaNi0.6Fe0.4O3-δ coating on the surface by physical vapour deposition process improves the alloy electrical behaviour and reduces chromium species evaporation. For this study, the same coating was deposited on the alloy surface by screen-printing process. Moreover, two spinel-type oxides, Co2MnO4 and Co3O4, deposited by physical vapour deposition process, were also tested in O2-H2O atmosphere at 800°C. The electrical conductivity did not present any improvement, but the Cr species volatility was reduced, especially with the LaNi0.6Fe0.4O3-δ coating.

Electrolyte degradation in anode supported microtubular yttria stabilized zirconia-based solid oxide steam electrolysis cells at high voltages of operation

Idaho National Laboratory (INL) has been researching the application of solid-oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs) for large-scale hydrogen production from steam over a temperature range of 800 to 900 C. From 2003 to 2009, this work was sponsored by the United States Department of Energy Nuclear Hydrogen Initiative, under the Office of Nuclear Energy. Starting in 2010, the high-temperature electrolysis (HTE) research program has been sponsored by the INL Next Generation Nuclear Plant Project. This report provides a summaryof program activities performed in Fiscal Year (FY) 2011 and the first quarter of FY-12, with a focus on small-scale testing and cell development activities. HTE research priorities during this period have included the development and testing of SOEC and stack designs that exhibit high-efficiency initial performance and low, long-term degradation rates. This report includes contributions from INL and five industry partners: Materials and Systems Research, Incorporated (MSRI); Versa Power Systems, Incorporated (VPS); Ceramatec, Incorporated; National Aeronautics and Space Administration - Glenn Research Center (NASA - GRC); and the St. Gobain Advanced Materials Division. These industry partners have developed SOEC cells and stacks for in-house testing in the electrolysis mode and independent testing at INL. Additional fundamental research and post-test physical examinations have been performed at two university partners: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the University of Connecticut. Summaries of these activities and test results are also presented in this report.

High-temperature electrolysis of water steam is a promising approach for hydrogen production. The potential is even more promising when abundant heat source from nuclear power reactors can be efficiently utilized. Hydrogen production through the above approach also allows for low electric consumption. Overall energy conversion efficiencies for high temperature electrolysis are in the 45-50% range compared to ~30% for the conventional electrolysis. Under such motivation, this research is focused on increasing the operation time and high temperature stability of solid oxide electrolyzer cells (SOEC) for splitting water into hydrogen. Specifically, our focus is to improve the SOEC seal thermal stability and performances by alleviating thermal stress and seal cracking issues.