Integration of pelleted biosolids with cover crops for improving soil properties

Soil biological properties are important for the stabilization and preservation of a good soil structure. Management practices can affect the diversity and population of microorganisms, which could beneficially change soil properties and promote a more sustainable dryland crop production. This study was established near Pontotoc, MS, USA (34°07′ N, 88°59′ W) on an Atwood silt loam (fine-silty, mixed, semiactive, thermic Typic Paleudalf) to evaluate the impacts of cover crops, planting dates and fertilizer sources (poultry litter, inorganic fertilizer and no fertilizer) on selected biologically related soil properties in a no-tillage, dryland soybean production. Soil analyses included total carbon and nitrogen, permanganate oxidizable carbon (POXC), easily extractable glomalin-related soil protein (EE-GRSP), water stable aggregate (WSA) and soil pH. Cover crop production and soybean yield were also determined. The results indicated that the fertilizer source had an impact on total nitrogen, EE-GRSP and soybean yield. Total N was 6% higher with poultry litter at the early planting date compared to no fertilizer (control) (p < 0.0018) and at the late planting date, when total N and EE-GRSP were increased by 11% and 13%, respectively, with poultry litter compared to no fertilizer. Additionally, soil pH was reduced by 0.25 units in the poultry litter-amended treatment. Soybean yield was increased by 68% and 51% in early-planted soybean and 42% and 40% in late-planted soybean with poultry litter and inorganic fertilizer, respectively, compared to no fertilizer. This study revealed that biological soil properties and soybean yield were influenced by poultry litter application. The results showed no significant effects of cover crops over the short time period of the study.

A field study was conducted on upland soils for six years to determine interactive effects of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cover crop, organic and inorganic soil amendments on grain yields and nutrient utilizations in a no-till corn (Zea mays)-soybean (Glycine max) rotation. Experimental design was a split-plot arrangement with four replicates. Cover crops were the main plots and fertilization treatments used as sub-plot. Fertilization treatments included an unfertilized control, poultry litter, poultry litter (PL) plus flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum and inorganic N fertilizer applied every other year to corn. Corn grain yield and grain N and P uptake were greater with PL than inorganic fertilizer in 2014 and 2016. Addition of FGD gypsum to PL significantly increased corn grain yield by 15% in 2016. Cover crop increased corn and soybean grain yields in a year with less seasonal rainfall possibly by conserving soil moisture.

Increasing diversity in monoculture production through inclusion of cover crops (CC) and reducing chemical fertilizer inputs by application of animal manures could increase multiple ecosystem services and agroecosystem function. This study was designed to quantify selected ecosystem services from legume, grass, and biculture CC and poultry litter (PL) in strip‐tilled corn (Zea mays L.). Treatments included hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth), cereal rye (Secale cereale L.), vetch‐rye biculture, and winter fallow (WF) all with and without fall‐applied PL. Prior to CC termination and corn planting, aboveground dry matter, N content, and C/N ratios of CC and weed biomass were measured; soil inorganic N (ΣNO3− and NH4+) was analyzed every 2 wk following CC termination. Biculture transgressively over‐yielded in 2014 but not in 2015, accumulated levels of biomass N similar to vetch treatment (Vetch), suppressed weeds as effectively as rye treatment (Rye), and maintained soil inorganic N levels similar to Vetch by the second year of study. Overall, CC yield increased 20 to 30% with fall applied PL. Vetch C/N ratio decreased 14% with PL in 2015, while Rye C/N ratio was unaffected. Average weed C/N ratios were 24.5 with Rye and 16.2 with vetch + poultry litter treatment (VetchPL). Cover crop systems with Vetch showed the greatest soil inorganic N, while Rye inorganic N levels were similar to WF. Winter annual weeds were suppressed at least 92% by CC, and most effectively when Rye was present. Ultimately, optimization of cropping systems including CCs and PL will require consideration of interspecific interactions and variable responses among species.Core Ideas Cover crop yield increased 20 to 30% with fall applied poultry litter. Biculture cover crop optimized yield, nitrogen content, weed suppression, and soil nitrogen. Carbon/nitrogen ratios of vetch and weeds were affected by poultry litter and cover crop treatments. Apparent poultry litter nitrogen recovery was greatest when a legume was present. Soil inorganic nitrogen increased with vetch and poultry litter.

Liming potential of poultry litter in a long-term tillage comparison study

This study evaluated changes in soil properties several years after implementation of conservation measures. Two approximately 50-ha fields within two Mississippi Delta oxbow lake watersheds (Deep Hollow and Beasley) were laid out in 60-m grids. Soil from a tilled cotton field in Deep Hollow watershed was sampled at each node in 1996 and again in 2000 after 4 years of reduced tillage cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cover crops; soil also was collected from conventional tillage cotton in Beasley Lake watershed in 1996 and again in 2006 from the same grid nodes after 4 years of reduced tillage cotton and 5 years of reduced tillage soybeans. Organic matter levels in the soil surface were higher in both watersheds after conservation tillage was implemented, likely caused by increased plant residue accumulation and limited soil mixing. Higher soil P levels in both watersheds under conservation management were attributed to less distribution in soil because of reduced tillage. Lower NO3-N in Deep Hollow in 2000 suggested N immobilization in the soil surface. Nitrogen was not analyzed for Beasley soil samples. Soil pH values were also higher in the later samplings for both watersheds, but because lime was applied in the interim, it is difficult to ascribe an effect from tillage. Potassium, calcium, and magnesium were higher in 2000 after the 4-year reduced tillage practice in the Deep Hollow watershed. However, potassium, calcium, and magnesium were lower in 2006 than in 1996 at the Beasley Lake watershed because no fertilizer was applied to the field since 2001. Regardless of tillage system, relatively high P levels in soils from both watersheds are indicative of high native soil P levels in the Mississippi Delta soils. Similar to other studies, water-soluble P was positively correlated with Mehlich III P. Spatial relationships of P examined using kriging showed that P data were spatially dependent, and their spatial dependence was impacted by tillage practices.

Sustainability of cereal-based cropping system is important for the livelihood and food security in semi-arid regions. The present study explores the impact of long-term organic and inorganic nutrients and integrated fertilization practices of soil test crop response (STCR) approach of inductive-cum-targeted yield model on soil physical properties and its correlation with soil organic carbon (OC) under pearl millet–wheat in sandy-loam soils of semiarid north-west regions of India. Results showed that OC in the soils significantly increased in farm yard manure (FYM) and integrated treatments up to a maximum of 135% and 148%, respectively, in a period of 8 years over the control in surface soils (0–15 cm). The increase in OC significantly increased the infiltration rate (IR), hydraulic conductivity (HC), soil water retention at all suctions, water stable aggregates (WSA) (> 0.25 mm) and mean weight diameter of the soil aggregates, while decreased the bulk density (BD) and penetration resistance (PR) both at surface and subsurface soil layers. Soil OC also showed a negative correlation with BD (r = −0.955) and PR (r = −0.820). The hydraulic properties of the soil, viz., soil water retention, showed a high positive correlation with field capacity (r = 0.973), 0.922 for permanent wilting point (r = 0.922), HC (r = 0.938), IR (r = 0.973), and WSA (r = 0.979) with OC. Thus, long-term application of organic material in conjunction with NP improved soil physical health, provided better environment to grow crops through improved nutrient concentration and its translocation that ultimately helps to achieve yield target through STCR (Soil Test Crop Response) approach of inductive-cum-targeted yield model.

The metabolic diversity of soil microbiota embodies diverse functional capabilities that support ecosystem resilience, driving essential biogeochemical processes and facilitating the optimization of sustainable agricultural systems. Integrating cover crops into agricultural systems cultivates a diverse array of metabolic activities among soil microbes, synergistically enhancing ecosystem services and bolstering soil health for sustainable and productive farming practices. In an effort to gain deeper insights and expand our knowledge, we conducted a study examining the effects of cover crops and fertilizer sources, thereby shedding light on their combined impacts on the metabolic activity dynamics of soil microbial communities. In this investigation, we employed a split-plot design with two factors: (a) cover crop with three solo cover crop species—Cereal rye (Secale cereale), wheat (Triticum aestivum), hairy vetch (Vicia villosa), and one mixture of mustard (Brassica rapa) and cereal rye (Secale cereale) (CC-mix), (b) Fertilizer source includes poultry litter, chemical fertilizer, and no-fertilizer treatments. We assessed the metabolic potential of soil microbiota by using carbon substrates utilizing Biolog EcoPlates. The findings revealed that the plots with CC-mix treatment exhibited greater metabolic diversity compared to the other treatments, while among the fertilizer sources, poultry litter demonstrated higher metabolic activity. Furthermore, both treatment factors predominantly metabolized carbohydrates and polymers compared to other carbon substrate categories. The principal component analysis accounted for 46.4% of the variance, collectively represented by PC1 and PC2, emphasizing the substantial contributions of carbohydrates, amino acids, and carboxylic acids to the observed metabolic diversity. Canonical correspondence analysis revealed that pH had positively correlated with microbial functional diversity, whereas total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), and water-stable aggregates (WSA) showed a negative correlation. In conclusion, cover cropping and type of fertilizer source had a notable impact on soil microbial functional diversity, with the cover crop mixture exhibiting a more pronounced influence than the individual cover crop treatments.

Rising production costs, unstable cereal grain prices, soil degradation due to excessive tillage and nitrate leaching are main constraints to sustainable agriculture in the Canadian prairies. Replacing conventional tillage (CT) with no-till (NT) and cereal-fallow rotations with crop rotations comprising cereals, oilseeds and legumes is thus encouraged, but information on crop rotation by tillage interaction is scarce. Properties of a silt loam (Dark Gray Luvisol), weed population and wheat production (Triticum aestivum L.) in canola (Brassica campestris L.)-wheat-wheat (C), fallow-wheat-wheat (F), field pea (Pisum sativum L.)-wheat-wheat (P) and continuous wheat (W) cropping systems were compared under CT and NT. Percentage of water stable aggregates (WSA) was reduced after a fallow season. Soil NO3-N was similar among cropped plots which was significantly lower than fallow plots in two of the three years. Ammonium-N, extractable P and penetration resistance (PR) of soil were not affected by crop rotation. The W plots tended to have more weeds than both the first (W1) and second (W2) year wheat plots in rotations. Wheat appeared to suppress weeds better than canola, field pea or fallow. Average production of 3.95 Mg ha−1 yr−1 as grain and 10.7 Mg ha−1 yr−1 as above-ground dry matter (AGDM) by the W1 were significantly greater than the corresponding production by W2 and W. Wheat grain and AGDM production in the two years of C, F, P and W systems were not significantly different in most cases. However, cumulative yields by C, P and W systems for three years of rotation were greater than the corresponding grain and AGDM yields from F rotation by 1.10 to 4.19 and 4.3 to 8.7 Mg ha−1, respectively. Tillage did not affect NO3-N, NH4-N, P and WSA in soil but reduced its PR. The NT system provided better control of annual broadleaf weeds whereas perennial weeds were better controlled by CT. The CT system produced more grains (average of 0.42 Mg ha−1 yr−1) than NT system. Crop rotation by tillage interaction effects on soil properties, weed populations and crop yields were not significant which indicated that the crop rotations were equally effective under both the tillage systems. Benefits of crop rotation over monoculture in this study were of similar nature as in earlier studies conducted on fields already under annual cropping systems. Canola and field pea were more beneficial than wheat as previous-crop for wheat production. Replacing fallow with a crop resulted in (a) increased crop production and straw returned to soil; (b) reduced potential for leaching of NO3-N; and (c) improved water stable aggregation of soil.

<strong class="journal-contentHeaderColor">Abstract.</strong> Conservation agriculture (CA) relies on the following three key practices to improve agricultural sustainability: crop rotation, reduced tillage, and cover crop usage. Despite known soil physical benefits (reduced soil compaction and strength, enhanced soil porosity, and permeability), inconsistent reports on short-term CA results have limited its adoption in the European agroecosystems. To elucidate the short-term effects, a 3-year field experiment was undertaken in the low-lying Venetian plain (northern Italy). Bulk density (BD), penetration resistance (PR), soil hydraulic saturated conductivity, and sorptivity were used to evaluate soil quality obtained by combining three tillage intensities (conventional tillage – CT; minimum tillage – MT; no tillage – NT) with three winter soil coverings (bare soil – BS; tillage radish cover crop – TR; winter wheat cover crop – WW). Among the tillage methods, CT, on average, reduced BD by 4 % (from 1.48 to 1.42 g cm<span class="inline-formula">^−3</span>) and PR by 3.1 % (from 1.69 to 1.64 MPa) in the 0–30 cm tilled layer. Across the soil profile, reduced tillage coupled with WW improved soil physical properties even below the tilled layer, as evidenced by root-growth-limiting condition reductions (<span class="inline-formula">−11</span> % in BD values, with BD <span class="inline-formula">&gt;1.55</span> g cm<span class="inline-formula">^−3</span>, and <span class="inline-formula">−7</span> % in PR values, with PR <span class="inline-formula">&gt;2.5</span> MPa). Soil hydraulic measurements confirmed this positive behaviour; NT combined with either BS or WW produced a soil saturated conductivity of <span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M7" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><mrow><mn mathvariant="normal">2.12</mn><mo>×</mo><msup><mn mathvariant="normal">10</mn><mrow><mo>-</mo><mn mathvariant="normal">4</mn></mrow></msup></mrow></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="57pt" height="14pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="b2ca4a5373241993583c7055bf442a1e"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="soil-8-213-2022-ie00001.svg" width="57pt" height="14pt" src="soil-8-213-2022-ie00001.png"/></svg:svg></span></span> m s<span class="inline-formula">^−1</span> (4 times that of all other treatments). Likewise, sorptivity increased in NT combined with BS vs. other treatments (<span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M9" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><mrow><mn mathvariant="normal">3.64</mn><mo>×</mo><msup><mn mathvariant="normal">10</mn><mrow><mo>-</mo><mn mathvariant="normal">4</mn></mrow></msup></mrow></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="57pt" height="14pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="379760655162d2c24a47865d6264da95"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="soil-8-213-2022-ie00002.svg" width="57pt" height="14pt" src="soil-8-213-2022-ie00002.png"/></svg:svg></span></span> m s<span class="inline-formula">^−1</span> vs. an all-treatment average of <span class="inline-formula"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" id="M11" display="inline" overflow="scroll" dspmath="mathml"><mrow><mn mathvariant="normal">7.98</mn><mo>×</mo><msup><mn mathvariant="normal">10</mn><mrow><mo>-</mo><mn mathvariant="normal">5</mn></mrow></msup></mrow></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="57pt" height="13pt" class="svg-formula" dspmath="mathimg" md5hash="eb46ee331ed69c3570c0ba663863a63e"><svg:image xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="soil-8-213-2022-ie00003.svg" width="57pt" height="13pt" src="soil-8-213-2022-ie00003.png"/></svg:svg></span></span> m s<span class="inline-formula">^−1</span>). Our results suggest that, despite the increase in BD and PR due to reduced tillage, the strategy improved soil functioning and particularly soil hydraulic conductivity. In the short term, the WW cover crop moderately increased physical soil parameters, whereas TR had negligible effects. This study demonstrates that, to quantify CA, several soil physical parameters should be monitored.

Inadequate and less vigorous crop stand is a constraint to adoption of conservation tillage in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production. We evaluated the effects of tillage (conventional till, mulch‐till, no‐till), cropping system (cotton–winter fallow, cotton–winter rye, Secale cereale L.), and N source and rate (ammonium nitrate and poultry litter; 0, 100, and 200 kg N ha−1) on cotton seedling emergence on a Decatur silt loam soil (Typic Paleudults) in northern Alabama, from 1996 to 1998. Cotton seedling counts under no‐till were 40 to 150% greater than those under conventional till at 1 and 2 d during seedling emergence. Cotton–winter rye cropping system had 14 to 50% greater seedling counts than cotton–winter fallow cropping during the first 4 d of emergence in 1998. Poultry litter source of N gave 17 to 50% greater cotton seedling counts than ammonium nitrate during the first 4 d of emergence in 1998. In all these cases, the differences progressively narrowed down by the 4th day of seedling emergence. Cotton seedling counts were significantly correlated to cotton growth parameters and lint yield, especially in the drier year (1998). These results were attributed to soil moisture conservation during seedling emergence. Our results show that conservation tillage improved cotton germination, emergence, dry matter, and lint yield. Therefore, no‐till with winter rye cover cropping and poultry litter can be used for achieving early cotton seedling emergence and growth in the U.S. cotton belt where dryland cotton production systems are on the increase and safe disposal of poultry litter is becoming an environmental problem.

The intensification of arable agriculture has resulted in an increase in vehicle wheel load and the intensity of field operations, which has increased the risk and incidence of degradation in physical properties of the uncultivated subsoil layer. Biopores generated by the long-term, repeated use of specific cover crops within an arable rotation has been suggested as an approach to improve subsoil physical properties. Therefore, this paper aimed to determine the impact of long-term repeated cover cropping and the interaction of rotation treatments with different cultivation approaches on subsoil physical properties. Data was collected at the NIAB ‘Sustainable Trial for Arable Rotations’ long-term, rotation and cultivation field experiment established in 2006. Rotation treatments comprised a brassica cover crop alternated annually with winter wheat (ALTCC) compared to continuous winter wheat (CWW). Cultivation treatments comprised PLOUGH (250 mm depth), and non-inversion cultivation at 250 mm (DEEP) and 100 mm (SHALLOW) depths. Penetration resistance and volumetric soil moisture were collected at bi-monthly intervals during the 2018/19 growing season. Undisturbed soil cores were collected for laboratory analyses of soil water retention, water stable aggregates, root morphology digital scanning and biomass, and X-ray computed tomography (CT). Results showed that treatment ALTCC combined with SHALLOW, resulted in lower penetration resistance and increased moisture in the subsoil. This increased subsoil moisture persisted later into the season compared to the control. SHALLOW increased subsoil water retention, improved subsoil root morphology and increased subsoil porosity. Benefits from treatment ALTCC were not observed where combined with higher intensity, deeper cultivation. Overall, the combination of treatments ALTCC with SHALLOW, produced significant benefits to subsoil physical properties.

Physical and chemical properties of soils under some piñon-juniper-oak canopies in a semi-arid ecosystem in New Mexico

Consumer demand for organic and sustainably produced products has increased the interest in organic wine grape ( Vitis vinifera ) production. However, organic production can be challenging, and weed management is a critical issue during the establishment of an organic vineyard. In 2009, the effectiveness of five cover crop treatments and cultivation regimes was evaluated for two years for weed control in a newly established organic vineyard of ‘Pinot noir précoce’ and ‘Madeleine angevine’ grape cultivars in northwestern Washington State. Alleyway management treatments were cultivation in alleyways with hand weeding in the vine row (control), grass cover crop which included perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne ssp. perenne ) and red fescue ( Festuca rubra ssp. arenaria ) seeded in the alleyway and in-row tillage with a specialty offset-type cultivator, winter wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) cover crop with in-row string-trimming, austrian winter pea ( Pisum sativum ssp. sativum var. arvense ) cover crop with in-row string-trimming, and winter wheat–austrian winter pea cover crop mix with in-row string-trimming. In 2009, weed dry biomass was lowest in the alleyway of the control (0.8 g·m −2 ) and offset cultivator treatments (6.3 g·m −2 ) on 3 Aug. and tended to be lowest in the alleyway of the control (4.8 g·m −2 ) and offset cultivator treatments (16.0 g·m −2 ) on 27 Sept. In the second year of establishment (2010), winter wheat and austrian winter pea were eliminated from the plots by mid-July, and white clover ( Trifolium repens ) and perennial ryegrass were the dominant weed species and accounted for a majority of the total weeds. On average over the two-year period, the control treatment required the most time for alleyway management (92 h·ha −1 ) followed by the offset cultivator treatment (64 h·ha −1 ), while the winter wheat, austrian winter pea, and winter wheat–austrian winter pea mixture required 32 to 42 h·ha −1 . ‘Madeline angevine’ produced more shoot growth than ‘Pinot noir précoce’ in Sept. 2010 (42.3 and 25.9 cm respectively), and shoot growth of both cultivars in the control treatment was significantly longer (125.0 cm) than under any other treatment (55.4 to 93.0 cm), illustrating the importance of weed control during vineyard establishment. In this study, the most effective weed management regime, although also the most time consuming, included a vegetative-free zone around the vines (e.g., in-row) maintained by hand weeding and a cultivated alleyway.

Corn (Zea mays L.) grain is a major commodity crop in Illinois and its production largely relies on timely application of nitrogen (N) fertilizers. Currently, growers in Illinois and other neighboring states in the U.S. Midwest use the maximum return to N (MRTN) decision support system to predict corn N requirements. However, the current tool does not factor in implications of integrating cover crops into the rotation, which has recently gained attention among growers due to several ecosystem services associated with cover cropping. A two-year field trail was conducted at the Agronomy Research Center in Carbondale, IL in 2018 and 2019 to evaluate whether split N application affects nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of corn with and without a wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cover crop. A randomized complete block design with split plot arrangements and four replicates was used. Main plots were cover crop treatments (no cover crop (control) compared to a wheat cover crop) and subplots were N timing applications to the corn: (1) 168 kg N ha−1 at planting; (2) 56 kg N ha−1 at planting + 112 kg N ha−1 at sidedress; (3) 112 kg N ha−1 at planting + 56 kg N ha−1 at sidedress; and (4) 168 kg N ha−1 at sidedress along with a zero-N control as check plot. Corn yield was higher in 2018 than 2019 reflecting more timely precipitation in that year. In 2018, grain yield declined by 12.6% following the wheat cover crop compared to no cover crop control, indicating a yield penalty when corn was preceded with a wheat cover crop. In 2018, a year with timely and sufficient rainfall, there were no yield differences among N treatments and N balances were near zero. In 2019, delaying the N application improved NUE and corn grain yield due to excessive rainfall early in the season reflecting on N losses which was confirmed by lower N balances in sidedressed treatments. Overall, our findings suggest including N credit for cereals in MRTN prediction model could help with improved N management in the Midwestern United States.

Grazing cover crops (CCs) on no-till (NT) croplands in western and central Kansas could increase the profitability of crop production in these water-limited environments. However, little information exists about potential soil compaction associated with grazing CCs in these cropping systems. From 2019 to 2021, two studies investigated the effects of grazing CCs on soil bulk density and penetration resistance in NT cropping systems. At the Kansas State University HB Ranch near Brownell, KS, CCs grazed with yearling heifers were compared to ungrazed CCs and fallow under NT or occasional tillage (OT). In another study, CCs grazed with yearlings or cow-calf pairs were compared to ungrazed CCs across seven site-years on producer fields in western Kansas (Alexander and Hays) and central Kansas (Marquette 1 and 2). Soil bulk density and penetration resistance measurements were made at the time of subsequent grain crop planting following CCs. At Brownell, CC management, tillage, and their interaction had no significant effect (P > 0.05) on soil bulk density. Across years, bulk densities with fallow, ungrazed CCs, and grazed CCs were 1.11, 1.15, and 1.15 g/cm3at the 0- to 2-inch soil depth, respectively. Soil bulk densities with NT and OT were 1.14 and 1.14 g/cm3 at the 0- to 2-inch soil depth, respectively. Similarly, CC grazing had no significant effect on soil bulk density and penetration resistance across the seven on-farm sites-years. At the western Kansas locations, soil bulk density averaged 1.23 g/cm3 at the 0- to 2-inch soil depth with grazed or ungrazed CCs. At the central Kansas locations, soil bulk density averaged 1.31 and 1.36 g/cm3 at the 0- to 2-inch soil depth for grazed and ungrazed CCs, respectively. Bulk density measured at 2- to 6-inch depth was not different between grazed and ungrazed CC in either study. At Alexander, penetration resistance was 0.52 and 0.52 MPa with grazed and ungrazed CCs, respectively. Penetration resistance was 0.36 and 0.34 MPa with grazed and ungrazed CCs, respectively, at Marquette 1. Results showed that grazing CCs never increased soil bulk density or penetration resistance compared to ungrazed CCs. Based on these findings, grazing CCs on NT fields can be a strategy for producers to balance profitability and soil health.