Introductory Readings In Geographic Information Systems

An ontology-based framework for semantic geographic information systems development and understanding

The diversity of spatial information systems promotes the need to integrate heterogeneous spatial or geographic information systems (GIS) in a cooperative environment. The paper describes the research project ISIS (Interoperable Spatial Information System) which is a semantic mediation approach to support GIS interoperability. Its key characteristic is a dynamic resolution of semantic conflicts which is adequate for achieving autonomy, flexibility and extensibility. We propose a spatial OO data model and a mediation architecture based on multi-agent paradigm to support GIS interoperability.

For the performance of geographic information systems, it has been widely recognized that efficient data structures and algorithms supporting proximity based access to spatial data are a crucial ingredient. Because of that, in the last years, a lot of data structures for storage of multidimensional non-point objects have been proposed in the literature (for an overview see our tutorial introduction in this volume). Almost all of these approaches are made to support queries based on spatial neighborhood of objects, so-called proximity queries. Common examples of such proximity queries are range queries, returning all objects intersecting a given (rectangular) region, or nearest neighbor queries, determining the object nearest to a given point. But a geographic or cartographic information system should also support queries that do not exclusively refer to the spatial neighborhood of objects. For example, different versions of spatial data must be organized such that proximity queries to any version of the data can be answered efficiently. Or, given a set of object classes, a spatial query that involves an arbitrary combination of these classes should also be supported. Because of the growing size of data sets to be handled in geographic information systems, an appropriate data organisation to support such and several other application-specific queries becomes more and more important. In this paper, we will present two approaches for access structures supporting the two types of queries mentioned above. Handling of versioned, spatial data is the topic of Section 2, while Section 3 discusses queries on some classes selected from the set of object classes stored in a geographic information system.

The development and increased use of geographic information systems (GIS) in policing has intensified the demand for public access to digital spatial information. For example, those in the academic arena require access to spatial information to augment their learning, teaching and research endeavours, while the general public need spatially related crime information related to their local area or region to inform decisions that impact upon their everyday living (for example, safety precautions, choice of residential suburb). Much of this information exists, such as the 2001 Census from Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2003), crime data available on the Queensland Police Service (QPS) website (http://www.police.qld.gov.au/), and the Atlas of Crime in Australia 2000 (AIC, 2000), yet often the information is not in a form that is easily accessible or comprehendable, requiring an understanding of and access to relatively complex commercial GIS packages. In recent years, police and researchers have worked closely together to develop publicly accessible web-based GIS applications for crime mapping, crime analysis, community mapping and information sharing (see, e.g., Police Foundation, 2001; Shyy et al., 2005; Chainey and Smith, 2006). Dragicevic (2004) highlights how web-based GIS has enhanced the open use of GIS in three main directions including: spatial data access and dissemination; spatial data exploration and geovisualization; and spatial data processing, analysis and modelling.

Indonesia is a country that has a tropical climate, so that many typical tropical climate diseases emerge.This disease is caused by viruses and parasites that breed during the dry season or the rainy season.One typical tropical disease is measles.This paper discusses the geographical information system (GIS) technology by analyzing spatial data modeling to determine the classification of measles-prone areas based on immunization status coverage using the Simple Additive Weighting (SAW) and Weight Product Model (WPM) method.Some parameters are used consist of immunization status data for multiple attribute decision making (MADM), diseases preventable by immunization (PD3I), epidemic and nutritional status of infants.The SAW and WPM method in modeling spatial data analysis processes data according to the parameters to determine the scale in comparing all alternative data on the scope of classification of immunization status areas, namely: good, average, fair and poor.The test results with the Cohen's Kappa Method Consistency Test (MCT) is obtained an average coefficient of 0.41 for consistent measurements for the chosen method.It can be concluded that the two measurements using the SAW and WPM methods have a moderate for the strength of agreement category, for using in spatial data modeling on the GIS for classification of measles prone regions using MADM.

Geographic information systems (GIS) are becoming more usual due to the improved performance of computer systems. GIS applications are being developed using the three-tier software architecture traditionally used for general-purpose information systems. Even though this architecture is suitable for GIS applications, the special nature and exclusive characteristics of geographic information pose special functional requirements on the architecture in terms of conceptual and logical models, data structures, access methods, analysis techniques, or visualization procedures. In this paper, we propose a generic architecture for GIS that provides support for the special nature of geographic information and conforms with the specifications proposed by the ISO/TC 211 and the OGC. Our strategy to achieve this goal consists of two steps: (i) we analyze the special characteristics of GIS with respect to traditional information systems, (ii) and we adapt the traditional three-tier architecture for information systems to take into account the special characteristics of GIS. Finally, we have tried to apply the architecture that we propose in the development of a complete and complex real-life GIS application using commercial tools in the analysis, design and implementation. We describe this application, and we use it to describe the limitations of current commercial GIS development tools by analyzing the differences in the architecture of the resulting system with respect to our proposal.

Data management and analysis are important for the application of water quality modeling in water environmental protection. The integration of the Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code (EFDC) model with Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is discussed in this paper. The data management and analysis ability of this widely used water quality model was enhanced by the integration. Database methods are used to integrate the different types of modeling data into a GIS platform. The spatial data modeling and analysis capacity of GIS is used in the pre-processing and post-processing of EFDC. The integration application is demonstrated by a case study of the Lower Charles River Basin water quality model, which was built with EFDC and has 56 varying-size curvilinear horizontal grids and 8 vertical layers. The case study shows that the integrated system significantly improved the application of EFDC with more efficient data processing, organization and analysis, and can be used as a powerful tool for water environmental management and decision making.

Even just a decade ago having a chapter dedicated to Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in a book on methods in history would have been seen as unusual, but such is the development of digital mapping and spatial technologies over recent years that historians cannot now afford to be without them. This chapter provides an introduction to GIS and its applica- tion and potential for historical study. Given the scope of the chapter it can only be reasonably cursory and aims to show what can be done with GIS in historical research (and teaching), with some pointers for historians on how they might employ GIS and spatial technologies in their own work. It should become clear that GIS is no longer a highly specialised and technical approach to handling spatial and temporal information but an increasingly user-friendly and accessible basis for integrating, analysing and visualising historical and geographical data of a wide variety, both qualitative and quantitative in nature. With this in mind, the chapter sets out: first, what GIS is and how it works; second, why historians might wish to use GIS; thirdly, how GIS is useful for providing insights into the past; and lastly, what the future might be in using GIS for historical research, particularly its problems and challenges. The chapter also provides some directions for further study, including the locations of a growing number of digital online resources that use GIS to disseminate historical material.

ABSTRACTThe tight coupling between geospatial data and spatial analysis results in high costs in terms of efficiency when developing algorithms to accommodate different types of data, even when the analysis tasks are the same. Universal GIS (Geographic information system) algorithms, as alternatives to tightly coupled approaches, can reduce development costs. However, a unified representation of spatial data is necessary to support the development of universal GIS algorithms. To this end, this research proposes and implements a template-based approach using geometric algebra to create a unified representation of multidimensional data. The template is composed of parameters and operators for GIS representation and computation. The template approach can support general GIS analyses with parameter unfolding and operator integration methods. A case study of intersection analysis shows that developing programming scripts based on computation templates is much simpler than traditional methods. The results suggest that the template-based method is more efficient than traditional methods and more convenient for high-dimensional applications.

This paper systematically examines the theoretical significance, technical methodologies and practical applications of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in geological hazard assessment, with particular emphasis on their role in evaluating typical hazards such as landslides, earthquakes and debris flows. Through spatial data collection, modelling, and analysis, GIS integrates multi-source data including remote sensing imagery, geological surveys, and sensor monitoring to construct hazard susceptibility zoning and risk prediction models, significantly enhancing evaluation precision and operational feasibility. Research indicates that GIS techniques—spatial overlay analysis, proximity analysis, and three-dimensional visualisation—effectively reveal spatial distribution patterns and evolutionary processes of disasters, providing scientific foundations for disaster prevention and mitigation. Nevertheless, GIS applications continue to face challenges including inconsistent data quality, conflicts between model complexity and computational efficiency, and insufficient real-time capabilities. Moving forward, through integration with artificial intelligence, big data, and cloud computing, GIS will demonstrate greater potential in dynamic early warning systems, intelligent modelling, and interdisciplinary collaboration, delivering precise and efficient solutions for geological hazard prevention and control.

Principles of stereoscopic vision have long been used in geographic data processing and visualization, e.g. Laussedat created what he called metrophotography in 1895 [2][3] and a stereoautograph for plotting from terrestrial photographs was produced in 1911 [2]. Today, a common and established use of stereoscopy in geographic domain is three-dimensional (3D) modeling of terrains and cities based on aerial, satellite and/or terrestrial imagery with photogrammetric techniques. In these systems, commonly, stereoscopic imagery is used as an input and a vector 3D representation of the terrain or city is obtained as an output. Stereoscopy has also been used for close-range photogrammetry, however within the scope of this paper the focus is on the cartographic use of stereoscopic visualizations. In recent years, a number of mainstream digital devices with stereoscopic capabilities are marketed (e.g. [4], [5], [6]), which indicates that we can expect to see more stereoscopic content in the near future [1]. In anticipation of such a development, it is also plausible to expect that stereoscopic geo-data will become more available for everyday use. It is, therefore, interesting to document which stereoscopic visualization features are supported by mainstream geographic information systems (GIS) software and whether these features can be improved. This work presents a survey on current stereoscopic visualization support in geographic information (GI) systems. The underlying objective is to outline future research needs by examining current stereoscopic 3D visualization techniques and tools in current GISs. This paper focuses on visualization modules of GIS software, and tries to answer the question “How commonly is stereoscopic visualization supported in GIS?" To achieve this, first whether such support exits or not in GIS software is documented, then supported types of stereoscopic operations and viewing methods are reported. Motivated by improving efficiency of stereoscopic visualizations in cartographic domain, within this survey, it is also examined whether these software offer level of detail (LOD) management support for stereoscopic datasets. Findings from the study are meant as a guide to researchers and practitioners to assess the current state of True 3D support in widely used GIS software.

Complex multi-actor problem situations in natural resource management (NRM) need the convergence of different knowledge processes, first of all, in understanding and agreeing what the problem is before aspiring for joint-action. This is a joint-learning approach in NRM. Geographic information systems (GIS), with their integrative, analytic, and visualization capabilities, offer promising means to facilitate this approach. However, using GIS relies heavily on specialists that develop and interact with the system, and thus, precludes participation of others NRM actors having no computer skills. Such a limitation can promote dependence on externally-planned intervention and is not desirable. In this research, I explored the use of participatory methods in designing a GIS for facilitating multi-actor learning about their problematic situation in NRM at the local level and communicating the same at the provincial level. This is to reinforce collective effort in understanding, negotiating, and active social construction of natural resources to be jointly managed.<br/><br/>Joint-learning started when Ifugao farmers and I engaged in tracing back NRM history of the study area which is located in the Northern Philippine uplands of Ifugao. This was done in order to learn about the traditional spatial information system that was used to successfully manage their terraced ecosystem that dates back to more than 2,000 years. By reading historical documentation, interviewing the elderly, and visualizing their NRM territories from their oral descriptions, I was able to establish the old Ifugao society's divisions of spatial responsibility that were parts of independent "water districts." Through spatial dialogue, local farmers participated in interpreting aerial photographs and satellite images, and in designing a prototype GIS which is patterned after their successful baddang (workgroup) in these water districts. By joining local NRM planning activities, I was able to identify potential NRM processes that can be reinforced by GIS, such as monitoring the status of their forests and terraces, and systematizing their trial-and-error reforestation efforts. By demonstrating GIS capabilities in supporting these activities ( e.g., site selection, data aggregation, map generation), and the roles that local and provincial level NRM actors can play in each ( e.g., jointly monitoring conditions, analyzing mapped data, formulating plans and policies), we developed a scheme for inter-actor communication process that can help gather support, identify possibilities and define responsibilities in co-managing their delicate landscape.<br/><br/>This research was able to identify a room for local participation in such an expert-dependent tool as GIS. It also demonstrated the inter-dependence of different expertise from different disciplines to come together in developing a GIS that can be effective in promoting a multi-actor NRM. Moreover, it showed a different side of GIS from mapping and data management to joint construction of the 'world' to be managed. This is important to extend our understanding of the complex world through exchange of alternative perspectives for common knowledge and wisdom to evolve and hopefully, promote concerted action for a more sustainable NRM. Interesting topics for future research also emerged from this study. The foremost of which is whether expertise and secondary information is enough to design effective practice; or whether interactive technology design promotes better practice.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) provide a powerful tool to transportation planners and engineers for a variety of analytical tasks. However, even with the advent of PC-based GIS systems and strong state and federal support, transportation planners and engineers in small and medium-sized communities face many constraints in finding the resources to pay for a GIS and in the development of a data base that can be used for practical applications. The Lane Council of Governments (LCOG) has been a leader in the design, implementation and management of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for almost three decades. The root of this successful implementation of GIS lies in the formation of multi-jurisdictional (cities, county, utilities, MPO), multi-application (transportation, natural resources, public works, assessment and taxation, land use planning) approach (termed the Common Mapping Project) and development of a Cooperative Project Agreement which has provided for sustained development of a parcel-level data base. This approach has allowed LCOG's transportation planners to have access to a very rich database. For example, the GIS provides land use and demographic inputs to the system model and overlay analyses incorporating the transportation system (both supply and demand characteristics), natural resources (soils, topography, hydrology, etc.) and other public works features (sanitary, storm sewers, utility lines, etc.). In addition, this approach has allowed LCOG to focus its transportation planning resources on the transportation system as other agencies have provided the resources for development and maintenance of other parts of the database. The 30-year history provides evidence of success of the approach. Without this cooperative, long-term approach, it is doubtful the GIS would be available to transportation planners in the Eugene-Springfield area. Certainly, we would not have the rich database that has resulted from this integrated approach. This paper/presentation will describe the approach taken by agencies in the Eugene-Springfield area in the development of its GIS, the benefits of this approach to transportation planning in a medium-sized area, and the key lessons learned over the years.

The diversity of spatial information systems promote the need to integrate heterogeneous spatial or geographic information systems (GIS) in a cooperative environment. We present an on going research project, called ISIS (Interoperable Spatial Information System), which aims to build an environment to support interoperability of GIS by interconnecting spatial data repositories and spatial processing resources. Our solution combines techniques from traditional interoperable information systems, spatial data modeling and distributed object oriented databases. While object oriented data modeling impact has been studied in spatial databases, research in model for distribution of both data and operations has received little attention. We focus on modeling problems and describe a hybrid spatial functional OO model that provides tools to model distribution and to resolve heterogeneities.

This chapter examines the costs and benefits of geographic information systems (GIS). It focuses on the research questions of what components to include in GIS cost-benefit (C-B) analysis, what distinguishes GIS C-B analysis from non-spatial C-B analysis, what methods to use, and how to invest in GIS systems in order to obtain net payoffs over time. It categorizes costs and benefits of GISs. It considers the topics of systems analysis sub-steps in cost-benefit analysis, the feasibility decision, stakeholders and externalities, and the importance of timing and timeliness in investing in GIS and assessing payoffs. It examines the C-B aspects of a well-known GIS case study of Sears Roebuck’s delivery system. The literature on the value of investment in IT and productivity paradox is analyzed for its relevance to GIS investment. The major findings are, first, that the costs and benefits of a GIS can be estimated through modifications of standard non-spatial IS methods. Second, the key factors that differentiate GIS cost-benefit analysis from that of non-spatial IS are more extensive analyses of the costs of data acquisition, need to pro-rate the GIS costs and benefits for tightly linked combinations of GIS and other systems and technologies, and need for improved techniques to estimate the costs and benefits of the GIS’s visualization features.