Is linguistic landscape necessary?

Introduction. The paper analyzes the linguistic landscape of the Mongolian capital Ulaanbaatar in an interdisciplinary theoretical and methodological context: at the junction of social semiotics, ethnography, and linguistic landscape studies as a subdiscipline of sociolinguistics. The aim of the study is to analyze the linguistic landscape signs and social meanings attributed to them by the inhabitants of Ulaanbaatar, as well as linguistic ideologies underlying social indexicality. The method used include photographing linguistic landscape units in the center of Ulaanbaatar and surveying representatives of small businesses and ordinary urban dwellers. In total, 576 units of the linguistic landscape and 100 questionnaires collected in March 2024 served as material for analysis. Results. A synchronous ‘crosscut’ of the linguistic landscape of Ulaanbaatar showed that the key ‘players’ in the linguistic ‘field’ of Mongolia — both in the capital’s linguistic landscape and in the collective consciousness are the official Mongolian language, English, followed by Chinese, Russian and Korean; vertical Mongolian writing has a special symbolic meaning. Behind the predominantly Mongolian linguistic landscape with a tendency towards Westernization other trends and ideologies have been revealed. On the one hand, it is the openness of the country and its orientation towards international cooperation, on the other hand, people’s concern about the future of the Mongolian language and its ‘purity’. The analysis also showed an ambivalent attitude towards English and Chinese in and outside the linguistic landscape, which is due to both historical memory and potential threats to the ‘small country’ from powerful neighbors and globalization, which jeopardizes national identity. As a certain ‘reconciliation’ of ambivalent language ideologies a hybrid naming strategy is interpreted, i.e. the combination of Mongolian and English on both official and unofficial signs of the linguistic landscape. This naming strategy has a multiple indexical value: this is both a representation of the Mongolian national identity and a manifestation of internationalization strategy and commodification of languages. The linguistic landscape in Ulaanbaatar creates a deceptive impression of a large presence of the Russian language, which is created due to the Cyrillic alphabet as a graphic system of the modern Mongolian language and a large number of Russian borrowings. The attitude towards Chinese is characterized by the greatest ambivalence when anti-Chinese sentiments exist along with awareness of its commodification value. In general, the linguistic landscape of Ulaanbaatar is in a state of dynamic transformation, and the increase in the symbolic weight of some languages (English, Chinese and Korean) and the decrease of others (Russian) metonymically reflects the vector of the country’s development and its value orientations.

This article delves into the concept of "linguistic landscape" as a methodological framework for examining the visual presence of languages in public spaces, highlighting its potential to explore socio-cultural dynamics and the ethno-linguistic vitality of communities. The author underscores the incorporation of linguistic landscapes into educational settings, advocating for it as a tool for natural language immersion through engagement with linguistic elements in daily life. This method allows students to interact with the language in its genuine context, thereby refining their phonetic and semantic abilities and enhancing their understanding of linguistic and cultural dynamics. The article also considers potential drawbacks of this approach, such as the limited focus on non-visual language components and the requirement for frequent data updates. The author suggests enhancing the method through interdisciplinary collaboration and the application of technology for data acquisition. The study of linguistic landscapes has been centered on specific cases that shed light on the execution of language policy and the conservation of diverse cultures. The examination of urban linguistic landscapes has attracted the attention of numerous scholars and experts, particularly those in the fields of comparative language studies and translation. The study conducts a comparative analysis texts within a multilingual urban landscape, aiming to identify translation errors that impede the navigation of foreigners in different speaking areas, as well as the origins of these errors and potential solutions.

In the last few decades, there has been a surge of interest in the interdisciplinary study of linguistic landscape (LL), since LL has been viewed as the junction of sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, social psychology, geography, and media studies. However, little is known about the role of non-linguistic features and the dynamism within a LL. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the multilingualism phenomena in Hong Kong revealed by LLs in Stanley using a mixed method approach. The result revealed that (1) all the official LLs were fixedly represented in Chinese and English (two official languages of Hong Kong); (2) foreign languages were found in non-official LLs for emblematic and tourism functions. Moreover, two types of relationship were found between the linguistic part and the non-linguistic part, (1) complementary and commercial relationship as well as (2) mutual translational relationship. The implications were three-fold. Theoretically, this study generated fresh insights into the interaction between linguistic and non-linguistic parts on LLs. Methodologically, mixing quantitative analysis and critical discourse analysis achieved a methodological triangulation, and further led to a comprehensive understanding. Practically, LL proves its value in English instruction due to its authenticity, dynamism, and easy accessibility.

This chapter explores the use of Moroccan Arabic (MA) in linguistic landscapes situated in urban spaces in Morocco, using urban sociolinguistic and linguistic landscape studies. These new language practices are linked to processes of social, political, economic and demographic transformation in which MA is considered, capitalized and marketed as an apt vehicle to reflect societal changes and modernity. To this aim, this chapter asks i) in what social, political and economic context is the increasing use of MA as a language resource in the linguistic landscape (LL) taking place? ii) How do the recent political, socio-economic and demographic transformations in Morocco create new spaces of communication in which MA is reconfigured as a local language resource? iii) How does the use of MA in the public space and in the LL create ipso-facto language policies that transform the sociolinguistic regime, the language ideologies and identities in contemporary Morocco? The data analyzed in this chapter are part of a multimodal corpus (text and image) of linguistic practices in MA, which includes a broad repertoire of the LL from several Moroccan cities. The results point out that the use of MA in the LL reveals a transformation in attitudes and ideologies toward this variety. This use is more than a process of sociolinguistic configuration of the public space, but it is also a process of interaction and negotiation of local identities and new forms of belonging in contemporary Morocco.

Modern sociolinguistics pays great attention to the study of the functioning of languages in a multilingual space. Visaginas is a multilingual town, which is denoted by a range of distinctive features: it is a town with a predominantly Russian-speaking population, in which socio-political changes are taking place. This attracts attention to the current linguistic situation of the town and the language policy realised in it. The article is devoted to the analysis of the Linguistic Landscape and Social Media Discourse of Russian-speaking Schools in Visaginas. The paper also includes a review of the relevant sociolinguistic literature. The analytical part presents the physical and virtual linguistic landscape of Russian-speaking schools in Visaginas. The study of the physical linguistic landscape and virtual linguistic landscape in schools of Visaginas allows us to find out which languages are functioning in this environment, and to determine their status. For the analysis, the linguistic landscape analysis method, the statistical method, and the comparative method were used. The conducted analysis of 6460 units of physical and virtual spaces has revealed the predominance of texts in the Lithuanian language and the practice of its active use not only in the school space, but also in the virtual space of Russian-speaking schools in Visaginas.

Linguistic landscape becomes a symbol of the presence of language in public spaces, depicting the representation of written language seen in public areas such as roads, tourist attractions, buildings, and food business complexes. The choice of language and function is necessary in response to the linguistic landscape of an area with a strong culinary business reputation for young people. This article aims to explain the choice and function of language as the primary source of reasons for language use in the linguistic landscape of the food business (LL). Data collection techniques used are (1) Observation, (2) in-depth observations, and (3) drawing conclusions against the examination of previous articles published in publications related to investigations in this particular study. Data dominated by bottom-up signage, such as shop names, advertisements, and signs of street food stalls, were collected from signboards in areas where many young people gather to shop, stroll, look, and eat. The results of this study show that bilingual Indonesian-English dominate language contestation in the area. In addition, slang is also found in commercial areas. This research reveals a variety of languages in the culinary business that is dominated by young people. It reports that English is most widely used in signs compared to Indonesian, Javanese, or the mother tongue of the local people. AbstrakLanskap linguistik menjadi simbol kehadiran bahasa di ruang publik yang menggambarkan representasi bahasa tertulis yang terlihat di area umum, seperti jalan, tempat wisata, bangunan, dan kompleks bisnis makanan. Pilihan dan fungsi bahasa diperlukan sebagai tanggapan terhadap lanskap linguistik suatu daerah dengan reputasi bisnis kuliner yang kuat. Artikel ini bertujuan menjelaskan pilihan dan fungsi bahasa sebagai sumber utama penggunaan bahasa dalam lanskap linguistik bisnis makanan (LL). Teknik pengumpulan data yang digunakan ialah (1) observasi, (2) pengamatan mendalam, dan (3) penarikan kesimpulan terhadap pemeriksaan artikel sebelumnya yang diterbitkan dalam publikasi yang berkaitan dengan investigasi dalam studi khusus ini. Data yang didominasi oleh papan nama bottom-up, seperti nama toko, iklan, dan tanda warung makan jalanan, dikumpulkan dari papan nama di daerah-daerah tempat banyak anak muda berkumpul untuk berbelanja, berjalan-jalan, melihat-lihat, dan makan. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa bilingual bahasa Indonesia-Inggris mendominasi kontestasi bahasa di daerah tersebut. Selain itu, bahasa gaul juga ditemukan di area komersial. Penelitian ini mengungkapkan ragam bahasa dalam bisnis kuliner yang didominasi oleh anak muda. Bahasa Inggris paling banyak digunakan dibandingkan dengan bahasa Indonesia, Jawa, atau bahasa ibu masyarakat setempat.

19billboards, street names, place names, commercial shop signs, and public signs on government buildings combines to form the linguistic landscape of a given territory, region, or urban agglomeration" (Landry & Bourhis, 1997, p. 25).Despite the fact that it is difficult to separate the impact of LLs on language learning from the influence of other kinds of input (such as formal instruction), it is now well established that exposure to a foreign language can occur in a variety of settings outside the classroom, especially when English is used as the target language (Cenoz & Gorter, 2008).Linguistic Landscape studies are a relatively new branch of sociolinguistics that makes an effort to create thorough and precise inventories of urban multilingualism (Blommaert & Maly, 2016).Since all learning according to sociocultural theories originates from the social world, engagement in culturally structured activities, such as exposure to and learning from LLs, is crucial for learning to occur (Lantolf et al., 2015).According to sociocultural views, social interaction with other people, objects, and events leads to the development of human cognition (Wang et al., 2011).As Vygotsky explains, sociocultural contexts have a major role in the growth of higher mental activities as they help voluntary attention, intentional memory, rational thinking, making plans, and problem-solving (Fahim & Haghani, 2012), leading to the acquisition of higher order thinking skills.Since LLs provide great opportunities for learning through real-life and contextualized input, they can be useful for developing pragmatic competence, language awareness, and linguistic variety (Cenoz & Gorter, 2008), some of the skills that are often difficult to achieve through formal teaching, such as in classrooms.While self-regulated learning outside the classroom is extremely important for learners to develop their L2 competence, Yabukoshi (2020) recently pointed out that researchers have not sufficiently focused on this issue.Self-regulation is a key motivating component for increasing students' self-efficacy and success (Kang, 2022).Activating metacognition is also integral to self-regulation enhancement (Kobayashi, 2016).Through the use of metacognition, language learners are able to monitor their cognitive processes (Haque, 2019).The final goal of any language learning is autonomy (Haque, 2019) since entirely autonomous students can regulate their own education without the aid of books, educators, or classrooms (Khaerudin & Chik, 2021).As learning beyond the classroom has an enormous impact on both language learning and learners' autonomy (Chan, 2016), various educational tools such as LLs can be useful for learners to move towards self-regulated learning and promote their language proficiency autonomously.A large number of scholars believe that learners' exposure to the range of discourses in a second or foreign language classroom is constrained (Krashen, 1982).Learners may not be able to obtain advanced levels of language competence if they merely receive input from a small number of weekly classes, based solely on textbooks (Ellis, 2005), especially if these are based on a structured syllabus.Despite the fact that LLs can help students become more aware of their surroundings and play a significant role in learning L2 (Ferrarotti, 2017), they have just recently begun to be investigated from an educational standpoint and be recognized as acceptable inputs for language learning (Roos & Nicholas, 2019).According to Qi et al. (2020), a large number of research studies have been conducted to show that LLs are legitimate resources to improve language learning However, these studies were still conducted in classrooms with learners receiving systematic and structured language training.Although numerous studies attempted to demonstrate a link between LLs and language learning and the advantages that teaching can derive from the school environment, Ying (2019) reports that only a few studies have specifically concentrated on the perspectives of learners and in the broader context of outside the classroom.The present research aims thus to understand the need for extra-curricular activities such as LLs to be utilized as authentic teaching resources to supplement to formal English learning.Specifically, it explores how Iranian university students take notice of LLs in public places, their attitudes towards LLs as forms of authentic input and how they utilize these to enhance their language learning.This research intends to provide answers to the following questions:1. How do Iranian university students pay attention to LLs in public places?2. What are their attitudes towards LLs as authentic input in language learning?3. How do Iranian university students utilize LLs to improve their language proficiency?

Linguistic landscape (LL) studies explore how public spaces mediate cultural, social, and economic practices through semiotic resources. While prior research has emphasized top-down regulated heritage sites and globalized retail spaces, the LLs of everyday leisure venues, especially cafés in mid-sized Chinese cities, remain underexplored. This study addresses this gap by investigating the linguistic landscapes of independent cafés in Suzhou through an integrated framework combining discursive frames, thematic abstraction, and discourse itineraries. Drawing on municipal policy texts, news reports, ethnographic fieldwork, interviews, and photographic documentation, this study identifies three overlapping discursive frames: resilient alienation, heritage commodification, and emotional self- and interpersonal care. These frames illuminate how multilingual signage, online catchphrases, poetic expressions, calligraphic scripts, and spatial design are appropriated by policymakers, café owners and consumers to critically or compliantly engage with overwork culture, aestheticize heritage, and cultivate care-oriented connection. Importantly, these discursive frames are not isolated; they intersect and are shaped by multiple agents in contingent ways at the online-offline nexus. This study contributes to LL research by extending attention to semiotic processes in everyday commercial settings and demonstrating how emotional, cultural, and socio-economic discourses become spatially and symbolically entangled. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed at the end.

This paper focuses on the role of the linguistic landscape in facilitating the acquisition of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Kenya’s multilingual society. It explores how different aspects of the linguistic landscape, including signs, symbols, public notices, and interactions within educational settings, support learners in engaging with and acquiring English. Linguistic Landscape Theory (LLT), which emphasises the visibility of languages in public spaces as a key factor in language learning, is employed. The paper employs a descriptive design and uses qualitative and quantitative data. The data presented is generated at three language institutes in Nairobi: the Consolata Language Centre (CLC), the Language School of Kenya (LSK), and the Kenyan Institute of Foreign Languages and Professional Studies (KIFLAPS). A purposive sampling approach was adopted to select 30 learners and 2 instructors from each institute. Data were collected through questionnaires for learners, in-depth interviews with instructors, and non-participant observation of the linguistic landscapes within the institutes. The findings reveal that the linguistic landscapes in the selected institutes were rich in visual displays, including electronic devices, printed materials, and other visual aids. These elements were strategically incorporated to support EFL acquisition by creating an engaging and visually stimulating environment. The importance of integrating real-life language usage within learning approaches and how the surrounding language environment impacts learners' language development are highlighted. It concludes that the linguistic landscape is vital in accelerating learning, enhancing information transfer, and fostering familiarity with English. It also contributes significantly to developing key language skills such as reading, speaking, and critical thinking. The paper proposes that incorporating a thoughtful linguistic landscape can create a supportive, immersive learning environment, which enhances EFL acquisition outcomes in diverse educational settings.

Linguistic landscape (LL) studies rely on approaches and theories from diverse disciplines. However, LL studies, especially those that adopt classificatory approaches, have favoured languages that have colonised other languages in geopolitical contexts. Arguably, these studies have been less critical in their approaches. This study, therefore, adopts a more critical approach to classify the languages employed in automobile graffiti, or automobilescape, in Ghana. Combining top-down and bottom-up approaches, the study gathered 2350 inscriptions on automobiles in Ghana. The study relied on the theories of decoloniality and indigeneity to propose a classificatory model of the languages, involving inner, next, and remote circle languages. This model confronts the hegemony, dominance, and monopoly of exogenous languages to advance linguistic democracy, rights, and justice. The article argues that the languages employed are underpinned by ideologies and identity politics. This study contributes to critical approaches to studying LLs in the African context.

In this article it is argued that the study of linguistic landscapes (public uses of written language) can benefit from viewing them as dynamic phenomena and examining them in a diachronic context. Based on the changes in the post-Soviet space since 1991, five processes are identified and examined with regard to language change and language conflict. It is further argued that the study of linguistic landscape offers a useful tool for post-Soviet sociolinguistics and for Slavic sociolinguistics at large, and examples are provided of the insights afforded by such inquiry.

In response to the limitations of the nation-state as a conceptual frame for the study of linguistic landscapes (LL), this article argues for a transnational approach that accounts for the material reconfigurations and symbolic reimaginations of space in the context of global flows and migrations (Appadurai, 1996). This approach enables one to recognize the fluidity of language practice that transgresses the metadiscursive regimes of language (Bauman & Briggs, 2003) upon which the ideological maintenance of native speaker idealization (Kachru, 2005) hinges. Drawing primarily on theories of language practice (Pennycook, 2010), language disinvention (Makoni & Pennycook, 2005, 2007), and language transgression (Pennycook, 2007), this article analyzes a variety of linguistic tactics in the transnational Korean LL, including those of the South Korean nation-state, and of ethnic Korean enclaves in the United States, including the Koreatowns of Los Angeles and New York. Language practice in the transnational Korean LL challenges the very boundaries of language that precede linguistic hierarchization (e.g., Inner Circle variety as superior to Outer and Expanding Circle varieties) and challenge the ideological commitment to native speaker idealization.

Languages and linguistic resources transport from one locality to another, adapting to the norms, customs, and regulations of a new locality. This process involves translocalization. Translocalization emphasizes the movement of linguistic resources against the backdrop of globalization and the combination or reframing of resources from different localities. This research explores the extent to which translocalization is reflected by the linguistic landscapes of three distinct commercial areas in Guangzhou, China. It goes on to discuss how translocalization works together with social rescaling to incur the movement of linguistic resources and to result in distinct linguistic landscapes of the three commercial areas. It concludes that some languages or linguistic resources, such as English, pinyin and traditional Chinese writing, are transported to local contexts for the purpose of rescaling, whereas other languages or dialects, like Cantonese, might gradually lose their function of rescaling and retain its function in indexing local identity and solidarity. This study calls for more attention to the local resources and contexts in linguistic landscape studies. It argues for the indexical function of linguistic resources in social rescaling and city planning.

Linguistic landscape research focuses on relationships between written languages in public spaces and the sociodemographic structure of a city. While a great deal of work has been done on the evaluation of linguistic landscapes in different cities, most of the studies are based on ad-hoc interpretation of data collected from fieldwork. The purpose of this paper is to develop a new methodological framework that combines computer vision and machine learning techniques for assessing the diversity of languages from street-level images. As demonstrated with an analysis of a small Chinese community in Seoul, South Korea, the proposed approach can reveal the spatiotemporal pattern of linguistic variations effectively and provide insights into the demographic composition as well as social changes in the neighborhood. Although the method presented in this work is at a conceptual stage, it has the potential to open new opportunities to conduct linguistic landscape research at a large scale and in a reproducible manner. It is also capable of yielding a more objective description of a linguistic landscape than arbitrary classification and interpretation of on-site observations. The proposed approach can be a new direction for the study of linguistic landscapes that builds upon urban analytics methodology, and it will help both geographers and sociolinguists explore and understand our society.

Jakarta’s Virtual Linguistic Landscape (VLL) offers a unique lens for examining the intersection of politics, economics, and identity in a multilingual, globalized urban setting. While most linguistic landscape studies focus on physical spaces, this research maps Jakarta’s VLL by analyzing language use in street, store, and restaurant names across five culturally and economically distinct districts: Glodok, Tanah Abang, Menteng, Thamrin-Sudirman, and Condet & Cipayung. Using virtual ethnography, data were collected from Google Maps, business directories, and online images, then analyzed through Thematic Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis. Findings show that Bahasa Indonesia dominates official toponymy due to state policy, while commercial actors strategically deploy English for global prestige, Mandarin and Arabic for ethnocultural identity, and Betawi dialect for local preservation. District-level variations reveal how language functions as both a political instrument and an economic commodity. The study concludes that Jakarta’s VLL reflects broader socio-political power structures, market-driven language commodification, and community identity negotiation, underscoring the need for inclusive language policies and further exploration of digital linguistic landscapes in Southeast Asia.