Machine Learning Techniques for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks

In the past few decades, optical communication with high data rates up to Gb/s in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN) has been extensively investigated. However, now a days researchers are highly focused on proposing/implementing localization algorithms for underwater optical wireless sensor networks (UOWSN) that are both fast in computation and cost efficient in terms of hardware design. In this paper we have used two different setups, one consisting of one led as a transmission node Tx. Where we exploit the effects of different angle on optical communication by implementing Lambert cosine law in a (UOWSN). The second setup is made of a led clutch which can communicate in 360 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0</sup> . Both setups are used to estimate the location of a sensor node Rx in (UOWSN). To complete the task of localization estimation, a multilateration algorithm based on Euclidean distance between the Tx and Rx nodes is used, where as Gauss–Newton method was used to find the minimum of the function.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are network of physical small sensors which are interconnected through wireless links. WSNs are ubiquitous in diverse types of environment such as air interface and underwater acoustic communication. WSNs are responsible for collecting data, accomplishing appropriate operations on it and if required then relay it to the sink node. WSNs had many issues and challenges specifically in underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN). Secondly there is an issue of network life time as the sensor nodes have limited battery and it is challenging to replace it frequently specially in UWSN. An important challenge in the performance of the DBR is the energy constraint due to limited battery life time, which can cause the entire network to go down. In this paper, we propose an Energy Harvesting Depth Based Routing Protocol (EH-DBR) protocol. Our proposed protocol (EH-DBR) sensor node harvest and store power via external acoustic source in the form of packets. The key advantage of our protocol is that its lifetime will be extended indefinitely. Moreover, our routing protocol can take advantage of DBR architecture without introducing extra cost. We conduct extensive simulations. The results show that EH-DBR can achieve very high packet delivery ratios due to long time performance.

Source localization utilizing wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is getting more popular in marine applications because the global positioning system is impractical underwater. Underwater WSNs (UWSNs) necessitate underwater acoustic (UWA) signaling, as opposed to terrestrial WSNs (TWSNs), RSSI-based source localization i.e., Received Signal Strength Indicator is explored in this article. In this paper, we provide an Aqua-Sim simulator, an underwater sensor network simulator built on the NS-3 protocol. Underwater Acoustic Sensor Network and Shadowing approaches are proposed and also a new set of Acoustic data is generated by Shadowing using mathematical calculations. In UWSN, the weighted centroid method is used. We chose RSSI to calculate locations. We were able to improve the accuracy and localization error numbers and mathematical formulae even more by using the modeling approach. Another unique aspect of our approach is that we only employed four anchoring apexes to analyze localization and find the position of the sensor nodes.

Unlike radio communication in terrestrial wireless sensor networks, acoustic channel in underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN) is challenged by long propagation delay and swarm mobility. The long propagation delay causes the deterioration of network throughput and unfairness. Moreover, the swarm mobility causes unreliable access and the failure of channel reservation. In this paper, we propose a novel delay tolerant MAC protocol (DTMAC) inspired by the coupon collector's problem. It proposes a distributed coupon collection algorithm in UWSNs. If a node needs to send a packet, the packet will be repeatedly transmitted $m$ times, with a transmission probability to be $p$ . Under the traditional protocol interference model, we first set up a probability model for throughput of DTMAC, and then give the throughput-optimal value for $m$ and $p$ with the successful transmission probability as tuning parameter. Because no any acknowledge or channel reservation is used, the throughput of DTMAC is not influenced by propagation delay. In addition, space unfairness problem also no longer exists since DTMAC is not concerned with transmission distance. The simulation results show that the throughput of DTMAC greatly outperforms that of MAC protocol with RTS/CTS scheme in most underwater scenarios.

The large-scale mobile Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (UWSN) is a useful networking paradigm to explore underwater environments. The characteristics of mobile UWSNs, such as low communication bandwidth, large propagation delay, and floating node mobility are significantly different from wireless sensor networks. In this paper, we propose a new efficient routing protocol, called multi-path routing (MPR) protocol, for UWSNs to improve the transmission delay. Multi-path is utilized during the path construction from the source node to the destination node, which is composed of a series of multi-subpaths. Each multi-subpath is a sub-path from a sending node to its two-hop neighboring node, called receiving node, by one more relay nodes, where these relay nodes simultaneously are neighboring nodes of sending and receiving nodes. Due to the different propagation delay of UWSN, the packet arrival time along the different sub-path is different; thus it may avoid the data collision in the receiving node when receiving different packets from different relay nodes. It surely sends the different packet along different sub-path to significantly improve delay time and packet delivery ratio. Finally, simulation results illustrate the performance achievements of the MPR protocol in improving delay time, packet delivery ratio, throughput and reducing overhead ratio.

Underwater wireless sensor networks are gaining popularity since supporting a broad range of applications, both military and civilian. Wireless acoustics is the most widespread technology adopted in underwater networks, the realization of which must face several challenges induced by channel propagation like signal attenuation, multipath and latency. In order to address such issues, the attention of researchers has recently focused on the concept of cooperative communication and networking, borrowed from terrestrial systems and to be conveniently recast in the underwater scenario. In this paper, we present a comprehensive literature review about cooperative underwater wireless sensor networks, investigating how nodes cooperation can be exploited at the different levels of the network protocol stack. Specifically, we review the diversity techniques employable at the physical layer, error and medium access control link layer protocols, and routing strategies defined at the network layer. We also provide numerical results and performance comparisons among the most widespread approaches. Finally, we present the current and future trends in cooperative underwater networks, considering the use of machine learning algorithms to efficiently manage the different aspects of nodes cooperation.

Earth is solitary among the rocky planets revolving in the solar system. It is the only planet that is 3/4 covered with oceans of liquid water. In today's era, wireless sensor network is used in almost places and also is an interesting topic for researchers too. But with the advancement in technology, a network similar to wireless sensor network can be deployed under the water with acoustic signals for data transmission. Because of harsh environment and some more challenges, underwater communication becomes tricky. Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) is an advanced technology for underwater explorations and have demonstrated their quality in underwater applications. UWSN is a blend of wireless technology with sensor technology that has some extraordinary features like smart sensing, intelligent computing, and communication capabilities. Further, to maintain the secure communication underwater, it becomes more and more tricky. This chapter presents an expansive analysis of challenges, attacks, and security techniques of UWSNs.

Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) are a subclass of wireless sensor networks. Underwater sensor deployment is a significant challenge due to the characteristics of UWSNs and underwater environment. Recent researches for UWSNs deployment mostly focus on the maintenance of network connectivity and maximum communication coverage. However, the broadcast nature of the transmission medium incurs various types of security attacks. This paper studies the security issues and threats of UWSNs topology. Based on the cluster-based topology, an underwater cluster-based security scheme (U-CBSS) is presented to defend against these attacks. and safety.

Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) explore aquatic environment to facilitate various underwater surveillance applications. However, UWSN unique features also impose new challenges such as limited bandwidth, huge propagation delay, mobile nature of nodes and high error rates. UWSNs deployment in unattended environment further exacerbates their vulnerabilities to the attacks. These challenges make security solutions proposed for Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) impractical to be applicable for UWSN. This paper analyzes the problem of security and mobility in UWSN and proposes Cluster based Key management Protocol (CKP), a new key management protocol for hierarchical networks where sensor nodes form cluster around more capable nodes. CKP also proposes a new communication architecture that handles mobility efficiently and minimizes the impact of a node compromisation to itself. CKP provides confidentiality, authentication, integrity and freshness. The performance evaluation demonstrates that the CKP is energy and storage-efficient. Further, we investigate the survivability and the security of the CKP against various security threats in order to evaluate its effectiveness.

Performance modeling and analysis of void-handling methodologies in underwater wireless sensor networks

Underwater acoustic communication is a method of sending and receiving messages beneath the water&#x2019;s surface that has been extensively researched for long-distance communication and localization. While, in this paper we will focus on medium range optical communication localization and short range Magneto Inductive (MI) communication localization. Both optical wireless sensor networks (OWSNs) and magneto inductive wireless sensor networks (MIWSNs) are investigated for localization of sensor nodes using a received signal strength indicator (RSSI) based localization technique for underwater environment/medium. Location information for MI nodes is obtained directly from mutual coupling measurement with a proposed localization scheme. Where as the localization of optical sensor nodes is done by exploiting the Lambert cosine law which gives values for luminous intensity in different distances and orientations. A simulation environment for both underwater optical wireless sensor networks (UOWSNs), and underwater magneto inductive wireless sensor networks (UMIWSNs) consisting of eight Tx anchor nodes and ten Rx sensor nodes is created to elaborate the localization estimation results.

Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) is an emerging technology for the monitoring of aquatic assets and frequently applied in several domains like underwater information gathering, ocean sampling network, anonymous vehicles, disaster prevention and submarine detection. Recently, UWSNs have been getting significant attention of researchers from both academia and industry. As a result, several studies have been carried out to perform certain improvements in UWSNs techniques, tools, protocols and architectures. In this regard, there is a dire need to investigate and summarize the modern UWSNs trends altogether within a single study. To achieve this, a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) is performed in this article to comprehensively analyze the latest developments in UWSNs. Particularly, 34 research studies published during 2012-2020 have been selected and examined in the area of UWSNs. This leads to the identification of 21 modern routing protocols and 11 tools. Furthermore, 5 different architecture types and 3 communication media technologies are presented in the context of UWSNs. Finally, a comparative analysis of routing protocols is done on the basis of important evaluation metrics. It has been concluded that there exist adequate approaches, protocols and tools for the monitoring of UWSNs. However, the design verification capabilities of existing approaches are insufficient to meet the growing demands of UWSNs. In this context, the findings of this article provide solid platform to enhance the current UWSNs tools and techniques for large and complex networks.

The underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN) is considered a promising technology for collecting valuable data from underwater areas, particularly for aiding military operations and environmental predictions. UWSNs consist of underwater sensor nodes that have limited energy and use acoustics for communication. Routing in underwater sensor nodes is one of the challenging issues in UWSNs because of the need to forward data packets with minimal energy consumption and a high packet delivery ratio. Selecting the next forwarding nodes is one of the key components of routing in UWSNs and has a direct effect on energy consumption and the packet delivery ratio. Therefore, this problem has gained much attention from the research community with the intent of enhancing the performance of UWSNs. This paper qualitatively reviews routing protocols for UWSNs, focusing on the next-hop selection method and its strengths and weaknesses. A taxonomy is presented for reviewing routing protocols under different categories of the classification. A summary of the qualitative investigation is presented highlighting aims, the next-hop selection method, metrics, and priority considerations. A comprehensive investigation is carried out focusing on energy, link quality, void awareness, reliability, and shortest path characteristics. Finally, we discuss potential future research directions in UWSNs for forwarding node selection.

The concept of smart cities is getting popularity day by day. Many countries have started adopting the idea of smart city to improve the quality of life by achieving the recommended level of sustainable development. The smart city is a technologically advanced area which could understand the world by analyzing the data in order to improve living conditions. The underlying technology infrastructure of smart cities are wireless sensor network (WSN), Internet of thing (IoT), RFID, and 6G are among others. Along with the technology, the role of machine learning and data analytics can’t be ignored. The smart cities generate massive amount of data from the monitoring equipments and sensors. Big data analytics is one of the important technologies which is capable of improving intelligent urban facilities. In smart cities large amount of data is continuously received from many sensors, autonomous machines or intelligent IoT devices. The accurate prediction depends on the approaches of data analytics and machine learning techniques. This chapter presents fundamental of smart cities, vertical in smart cities and data analytics approaches.

Water covers more than 70 % of the entire planet, contains much of its natural resources. With the increasing use of underwater sensors for the exploitation and monitoring of vast underwater resources, underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN), mostly based on acoustic transmission technologies, have been developing steadily in terms of operation range and data throughput. In an energy-constrained underwater system environment it is very important to find ways to improve the life expectancy of the sensors. Compared to the sensors of a terrestrial Ad Hoc Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), underwater sensors cannot use solar energy to recharge the batteries, and it is difficult to replace the batteries in the sensors. This paper reviews the research progress made to date in the area of energy consumption in underwater sensor networks (UWSN) and concentrates on developing routing algorithms that support energy efficiency. These algorithms are designed to carry out data communication while prolonging the operation time of WSNs.