Methanol Utilisation Technologies

Lemongrass is one of the most prospective essential commodities. The demand for citronella oil is quite high and the price is stable and tends to increase. Distilled citronella leaves produce an essential oil known as Citronella oil. In Aceh Utara, the production of citronella farming and agroindustry is focused on Sawang Sub-District. The establishment of an agroindustry for refining citronella oil is one of the ways in which existing citronella can be processed into citronella oil. Processing is in order to provide maximum benefits by paying attention to aspects of efficiency and effectiveness, namely increasing added value. The purpose of this study was to analyze the potential of agro-industry and added value in the citronella processing agroindustry in Sawang District, North Aceh Regency. Added value analysis is by using the Hayami method. The results showed that the potential for citronella agro-industry in North Aceh District was relatively limited given the limited raw materials for citronella. The distillery still uses oil drums so that the quality of the oil produced allows it to contain iron carotene. The added value in 1 Kg of citronella raw material is IDR 799 /Kg, meaning that for every 1 Kg of raw material will provide an additional value of IDR 799. While the added value ratio of citronella oil is 49.93%. The distillery still uses oil drums so that the quality of the oil produced allows it to contain iron carotene

Due to fluctuations in oil prices and the very low elasticity of oil demand, alternative fuels have in recent years been on the development agenda all over the world. In addition, environmental issues (reducing CO2 emissions) have also fostered this development. Although the production of alternative fuels requires very significant harvesting and transportation work, very rarely have logistics issues been addressed in research on this topic. In this chapter we consider the factory location decision through a case study about a Finnish company that has plans to establish a bio-diesel production unit. It uses wood and wood waste as its raw materials. The research findings show that transportation logistics requirements are diverse (as road, railway, and sea are needed), not only for the transportation of local raw materials, but also raw materials from nearby foreign places. As shown, the proximity of a refinery for semi-finished wax product also plays a significant role.

Usage of Bio-energy is becoming more and more prominent due to the peak oil crisis. Bio-energy is the energy which can be synthesized using methods and raw material which are available in nature and are derived from the biological sources. They are referred as bio-mass energy, bio-diesel, and bio-power. In this paper the study has been carried out on bio-energy generation in form of bio-diesel and the bio-diesel is produced in the laboratory conditions by using base catalyzed trans-esterification process. The nomenclature bio-diesel is given to the oil which can be generated by using the raw materials which are renewable and are waste materials. It doesn’t contain any percentage of petroleum products in it. It is called bio-diesel because it can be further used to run the diesel engine. In this paper biodiesel is generated using local pond algae by the process of base catalyzed trans-esterification.

ІNCOMES AND EXPENSES OF THE RURAL POPULATION AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE STANDART OF LIVING

Aim. The presented study aims to determine the impact of crisis factors resulting from the COVID-19 (Coronavirus) pandemic on Russian and foreign financial markets. Tasks.The authors assess the economic downturn caused by the COVID-19 (Coronavirus) pandemic; describe the dynamics of global gross domestic product (GDP) decline, the distinctive features and nature of the current economic crisis; analyze trends in financial markets to identify the most and least affected industries and economic sectors; analyze and forecast the development of raw materials and renewable energy markets; find ways out of the crisis. Methods. This study uses the methods of analogy, comparative analysis and systematization, and mathematical analysis. Results. Analysis of the stock performance of the largest companies in the financial markets for the I–IV quarters of 2020 makes it possible to assess the positive and negative impact of the crisis on various industries in the US and Russia. The study shows the decrease in demand for primary energy by types of energy carriers and for oil, as well as the potential and prospects for its recovery. Conclusions. The crisis factors caused by the pandemic have had a multidirectional impact on various economic sectors both in Russia and abroad: the greatest damage has been done to air transport, the oil and gas industry, and banking services. However, these crisis factors have not significantly affected IT companies, retail, and medicine, which managed to quickly increase sales and reach record levels of capitalization due to the specific features of their activities. Trends in the Russian market show similar dynamics of consumer demand for the corresponding goods and services, and as a result, for the financial results of companies. Renewable energy sources (RES) have become resilient to falling demand in the global energy market. It is found that the way out of the crisis involves changing the future concept of energy and reforming the labor market. The development of the RES sector will boost the development of green energy and a new labor market focused on green jobs and a carbonfree economy. The demand for oil, which declined sharply during the COVID-19 (Coronavirus) pandemic, is inelastic and will increase over time, which, in the authors’ opinion, will support oil prices and create a more favorable external environment for Russia, allowing it to restore its economy. The key positive result of the pandemic is the acceleration of digitalization processes, increased competition in global markets, and changes in business processes and employee performance assessment systems.

1. Introduction Nordin, Simeh, Shariff and Baharim (2007), proved in their studies that there is a relationship between the price of crude oil and biodiesel. The results showed that the increase in oil prices during the period of the last few years encouraged some countries to begin to pay attention to the use of alternative fuels, among others from the plant (biodiesel). The increase of petroleum will increase biodiesel production. Ramli, Abas, R. and Ayatollah (2007) in their studies proved that the crude oil price is affected by biodiesel, the first derivative product of palm oil which produces palm oil (known as crude palm oil or abbreviated with CPO), utilizing biodiesel which comes from palm oil, the results showed that the biodiesel increase has affected the crude palm oil price. The development industries based on this CPO in addition directed to produce food products such as cooking oil, margarine, shortening, Cocoa Butter subtitute (CBS), and vegetable ghee, it is also directed to produce non-food products, such as industrial oleochemical primary (fatty acid, fatty alcohol, glycerin) and other oleochemical derivatives, namely surfactants, cosmetics, farmacy, and bioenergy. Oil palm plantations and palm oil industry as a means to improve the socio-economic conditions of rural communities through the implementation of operations Inti-Plasma programs (Zen et al., 2006). When the world oil price increases, many countries use CPO as raw material of bio-diesel fuel as a substitute (Karuppuswamy, Sundararaj and Elangovan, 2007; Pociovalisteanu et al., 2010; Thalassinos and Politis, 2012; Thalassinos et al., 2012). These conditions favor the use of biodiesel as a variety of targets alternatives to fossil energy applied to several countries in the world (Kennerly and Neely, 2003). In 2020, the European Union set a target of 10 percent biofuels of raw palm oil. Zen, Barlow and Gondowarsito (2006) studied that the crude oil prices have an influence on the palm oil as pointed out by Ahuja and Khamba (2008). It has been proved that there is an influence of biodiesel on the production of palm oil. The research result on the biodiesel and its impact on crude palm oil and its implications for palm oil, showed that the growing number of biodiesel has a positive and significant effect towards crude oil palm as well as the implications for the production of palm oil rises (Ashayeri, 2007). The increase of demand and the use of palm oil as a fuel is expected to cause disruption of the availability of CPO as raw materials for food, especially palm oil (Chand and Shirvani, 2000; Enkawa and Schvaneveldt, 2001). Novelty of this research is to add the existing variables into world oil price of the biodiesel and its impact on crude palm oil and its effect on oil palm. 2. Theory and Hypothesis As Santoso (2014) has pointed out bio-diesel is a natural renewable energy source that made from biomass or vegetable oil. As the bio-diesel has physical properties very similar to petroleum derived diesel fuel or ADO (Automobile Diesel Oil), bio-diesel has been used for motor engine since 1880's. In 1920's, bio-diesel production infrastructure has been nearly eliminated since diesel engine manufacturers altered their engine to utilize petroleum diesel that was much cheaper than Bio-diesel production. Recently, an increase on oil consumption, crude oil price, and ADO import have lead to consider bio-diesel utilization for transportation sector in Indonesia. An increase of the crude oil price that lead to a decreasing cost differential for bio-diesel production, bio-diesel utilization as alternative energy source in Indonesia is a real possibility. Some environmental impact concerns would also increase the bio-diesel utilization prospect. Oil palm is a highly profitable crop adapted to the humid tropics and the area devoted to this crop is likely to expand significantly in the future. It has many environmentally favourable attributes over its full life cycle. …

Nineteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in PM2.5 emitted from five different cooking activities were characterized, and their influencing factors were determined. The total quantified particle-bounded PAH concentrations (ΣPAHs) in the airs from the cooking activities were 4.2-36.5-fold higher than those in corresponding backgrounds. The highest ΣPAHs were seen in cafeteria frying (783±499ng/m3), followed by meat roasting (420±191ng/m3), fish roasting (210±105ng/m3), snack-street boiling (202±230ng/m3), and cafeteria boiling (150±65ng/m3). The main influencing factors on the PAH emissions were cooking methods, fat contents in raw materials, and oil consumptions. Four- to six-ringed PAHs had the highest contributions to the ΣPAHs (avg. 87.5%). Diagnostic ratios of individual PAH were similar between the two charbroiling and other three conventional Chinese cooking methods, respectively, demonstrating the dominance of cooking methods in the PAH emissions. Remarkably high benzo(b)fluoranthene/benzo(k)fluoranthene (BbF/BkF) ratio (8.31) was seen in the snack-street boiling, attributed to the coal combustion as cooking fuel. Both fluoranthene/(fluoranthene+pyrene) [FLT/(FLT+PYR)] and benzo(a)anthracene/(benzo(a)anthracene+chrysene) [BaA/(BaA+CHR)] ratios were higher for the oil-based cooking than those from the water-based ones. In addition, two ratios of indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene/(indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene+benzo(g,h,i)perylene) [IPY/(IPY+BPE)] and benzo(a)pyrene/(benzo(a)pyrene+benzo(g,h,i)perylene) [BaP/(BaP+BPE)] were higher for two charbroiling than the three conventional Chinese cooking methods. The characterization work in this study is particularly important since cooking is a potential contributor of atmospheric PAHs in urban China. Carcinogenic potencies of PAHs were assessed by comparison with the air quality guideline and health risk estimation. The BaP and BaP equivalent were higher for the oil-based than the water-based cooking activities.

Currently, global consumption of vegetable oils for food purposes exceeds 200 million tons per year. Hazardous waste frying oil has become a fully valuable, environmentally friendly raw material with a wide range of industrial applications. Solid materials based on waste cooking oil (WCO) are becoming increasingly popular due to their easy production technology, availability of raw material, and low cost. Waste cooking oil can be used to produce materials used in the construction industry. In the present study, the manufacturing process of oil composites reinforced with natural additives such as nut shells, pistachios, and shellfish shells was optimized and their physicochemical and phytotoxic properties were determined. The absorbability of the obtained oil composites ranged from 3.1 to 10.3%. The maximum growth inhibition of 82% was recorded for the underground part of Sinapis alba for soil soaked in a solution obtained by leaching oil composites obtained at 185°C (catalyst: catalyzed oil ratio equal to 0.24). Lowest growth - 63% for Sorghum saccharatum grown on a sponge soaked in a solution obtained by leaching oil composites was obtained at 210°C (catalyst:catalyzed oil ratio equal to 0.13).

The high consumption of cooking oil in Indonesia is directly proportional to the production of used cooking oil waste that can pollute the environment. To overcome this problem, used cooking oil is used as a biodiesel feedstock using the plasma electrolysis method. Plasma electrolysis is a synthesis process by applying a high voltage to the process. This study aims to determine the effect of the plasma electrolysis method with variations in voltage (400 - 500 volts) and the type of reagent (methanol and ethanol) on % yield and characteristics of biodiesel. The process is carried out by reacting used cooking oil with a reagent that is given a voltage until an electric discharge occurs and two layers are formed and the calculation of the specific energy requirements for the synthesis process is carried out. The results show that at a voltage of 500 volts with methanol reagent produces a yield of 85.73% with characteristics according to the SNI 7128:2015 standard such as density 888.36 Kg/m3, viscosity 5.79 Cst, acid number 0.39 mg - KOH/g, content ester 97.56% and flash point 117oC with the exception of water content 0.373%, with a specific energy requirement of 1758,031 J/mL.

Chapter 29 - Chemical and compositional structures (fatty acids, sterols, and tocopherols) of unconventional seed oils and their biological activities

The demand for palm oil is expected to increase due to its wide use in the market. Palm oil is extracted from the fruit of the African palm tree, yielding crude palm oil (CPO) and palm kernel oil (PKO). The production process involves multiple stages, from harvesting to drying; while the problem lies in the scarcity of fresh fruit bunches and the lack of diagnosis of the process. This study proposes to carry out a WEP (Water–Energy–Product) technical assessment to optimize the use of water, energy, and raw materials in the production of CPO, calculating a series of technical parameters and indicators and determining the latter’s efficiency. The results showed that for a processing capacity of 30,000 kg/h of African palm bunches, 5070 kg/h of CPO were obtained, reaching a production yield of 69.63%, a wastewater production ratio (WPR) of 58.64 %, a fractional water consumption (FWC) of 2.38 m3/t of CPO, a total cost of freshwater (TCF) of 347.33 USD/day, a total cost of energy (TCE) of 13,235.95 USD/day, an energy-specific intensity (ESI) of 4905.66 MJ/t of CPO, a natural gas consumption index (NGCI) of 103,421.65 m3/t of CPO, an electric energy consumption index (EECI) of 165.67 kWh/t of CPO, and a net energy ratio (NER) and energy utilization index (ECI) of 165.67 kWh/t of CPO. The EUI is higher than 1. Additionally, five indicators showed an efficiency higher than 80%, highlighting the energy indicators (TCE, NGCI, and EECI), which reached the highest efficiency (95.45%) due to the predominant use of natural gas, and the water indicators (FWC and TCF), which reached 92.90% and 88.12%, respectively. Finally, improvements are required in the WPR (41.36%) and the ESI (78.13%), which merit optimization techniques using mass and energy integration, respectively.

TUNG oil is an essential raw material of present-day varnish manufacture, and in fact its unique properties render it indispensable for certain types of varnish. Until comparatively recently, China has satisfied the world's demand for tung oil, and will, it is considered, continue to remain the chief source for some years to come. The oil is derived from two species of Aleurites, Fordii and montana, of which the former is the chief source. It was Wilson, a naturalist in western China, who in 1915, after a study of the species of Aleurites, solved the question as to the true origin of tung oil. A. Fordii has its habitat chiefly in western and central China, whilst A. montana is found more to the south. Tung oil, also termed China wood oil, was known outside China about 1760. It was first introduced into the United States in 1896, into Germany in 1897, and soon afterwards into England. Little notice of it was taken commercially in England until after the outbreak of War, when specil water-resisting varnishes were required for aeroplane work. Thereafter, on the recommendation of the Raw Materials Committee of the Imperial Institute, growing experiments (Wilson having stated that he considered the trees could be grown in South Africa, East Africa, Australia, Algeria, and Morocco) were started in India, Ceylon, Malaya, Burma, Kenya, Tanganyika, Hong-Kong, and South Africa. The position of this new industry was first reviewed in a paper prepared by Dr. L. A. Jordan, of the Research Association of British Paint, Colour, and Varnish Manufacturers (Technical Paper, No. 1), published by the Association for private circulation in 1927. The work described proved of such importance and aroused such interest that the paper has been now republished, after a revision, by Dr. Jordan (Journal of the Oil and Colour Chemists Association, Vol. 12, No. 107, May 1929).

Zulnely, Gusmailina, Kusmiati E. 2015. Prospects of Eucalyptus citriodora as essential oil. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon 1 (1): 120-126. Essential oils also called as ethereal or volatile oils, are often used as raw materials in various industries, such as perfume industry, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, a flavoring agent in food and beverage industry. The local demand for essential oils is relatively high, both in volume and type of the oils, as the related industry is growing rapidly. Todays, essential oils are utilized a lot for aromatherapy, SPA and so on. Regarding the growing demand, the export volume will increase, thus opening opportunity of developing essential oils production, especially new type ones. Market opportunities of essential oils within and outside the country is largely open. Eucalyptus citriodora has great potential to be produced as economically important essential oils. This plant originally grows in Australia and recently is found growing in almost all tropical regions of the world including Indonesia. Yet, there is no record of the commercial plantation of the plant in Indonesia, probably because the public is generally not aware of the plant’s potential as sources of essential oils. This paper presents results of preliminary studies on the distillation and analysis of E. citriodora for essential oil. Essential oils obtained from the distillation ranged from 1.1 to 2.4%. The oils scent is soothing, pleasant and soft. The average number of the ester is 8.00, refractive index ranges from 1.3990 to 1.4506; and acid number ranges from 2.25 to 2.93. Results of GC-MS analysis showed that 53% of the 30 components contained is 1.4-Cyclohexadiene, 1-methyl-4- (1-methylethyl, a terpenoid compound with the formula C6H8. The potential source of the oils are the leaves and little twigs. Results from the content analysis showed the plant’s potential as a perfume scent, pharmaceutical ingredients, and insect repellent.

This paper is a review of available literature on <em>Zea mays </em>L.ssp.<em>ceratina</em>. It contains information on the origin, cul- tivation and utilization of waxy maize in the world and can be a contribution to the development of new research on maize cultivation and starch processing technology.<br /> Maize, as an old and economically important cereal, played an enormous role in the ancient civilisations of the New World. Among the maize subspecies compared, <em>Z. mays </em>ssp. <em>indurat</em><em>a </em>and <em>Z. mays </em>ssp. <em>indentata </em>are now the most important in Poland<em>. </em>The subspecies <em>Z. mays </em>ssp. <em>saccharata </em>has a marginal role, while <em>Z. mays </em>ssp. <em>ceratina </em>has not been hitherto cultivated. Decisions to introduce the subspecies Z. <em>mays </em>ssp. <em>ceratina </em>into cultivation are based on different grounds, taking into account both agro-climatic conditions and industrial uses of grain processing products. The growing demand for maize grain, stimulated by the increased demand for maize starch and oil in the global market as raw materials that are important in food production, is an impulse for the development of agrobiological research. The development of the starch industry, associated with the demand for industrial starch, will probably contribute to increased interest in this subspecies in Central Europe, also including Poland. Waxy maize grain can be a major ingredient of high-energy feeds for livestock, replacing in this role the type of maize that has been grown for this purpose until now.<br /> A great advantage of waxy maize is its specific structure of starch, due to its unique and high amylopectin content (95-98%), which creates unlimited possibilities of industrial use. Currently, waxy maize acreage in Europe does not exceed 2% of the maize crop area in this continent.

Paper analyzes the prospects of biofuels second and third generation in the structure of the global energy balance, demonstrates a sharp decline in oil and gas revenues in the Russian budget, describes advantages and disadvantages of biodiesel and bioethanol production. The connection between the growth of Russia’s export potential in terms of hydrocarbon products processing with EU standards implementation has been proved. The problems of the realization of programs on the oxygenate technologies development in the Union State of Russia-Belarus were revealed. The capacity of the market of 3-4 generations fuel with using non-food raw materials and various types of biomass was estimated. Was proved that at a high level of growth in business value and profitability of production there are incentives to organize deep processing in Russia’s hydrocarbon production. It is proved that the oil and gas industry in a creative economy should increase its science intensity and depth of raw materials processing, including ones in related industries.