MO‐D‐105‐06: Dose‐Area Product as a Method for Small Field Geometric QA

Previous studies describe the use of a large area parallel-plate chamber, the PTW Bragg Peak chamber, for measuring dose-area product (DAP) and output factors in small megavoltage photon fields. However, in radiotherapy departments without protons, this detector would have to be purchased separately for this purpose. This work investigated the feasibility of alternatively using a large transmission ionisation chamber, the IBA round Stealth chamber (SC), for output factor measurements of stereotactic fields. This type of detector is more commonly found in radiotherapy departments as a reference chamber for water tank scanning of small fields, and hence DAP could be performed without an additional purchase. The SC's large sensitive area (diameter of 94mm) measures the integral dose, also known as DAP, over the whole two-dimensional (2D) dose distribution of the small field. The measurements were performed using a 6 MV beam from an Elekta Infinity linear accelerator. Conversion of DAP to central axis point dose was performed using 2D dose maps from Gafchromic EBT3 films. The field sizes measured ranged from side length of 5mm to 50mm (all square). The resultant output factors were compared against measurements with a stereotactic diode. The small field output factors measured using SC + film were in good agreement with the stereotactic diode (within 2% for field sizes as small as 6mm; 3% difference at 5mm). The new proposed method showed that a transmission chamber like SC is a good alternative large-area parallel plate chamber to measure DAP and derive small field OFs. Furthermore, the feasibility of using 2D reconstructed dose maps from water tank profiles and hence filmless approach was investigated. Results showed that filmless conversion of DAP to central axis point dose is feasible using profiles. However, a large number of profiles are required (i.e. 15° increments (star pattern) are required for accurate 2D dose reconstruction), and hence the water tank scanning for this approach may be prohibitively time-consuming.

Purpose:In recent years the need for small field data of MLCs has increased due to the use of intensity‐modulated radiation (IMRT), but moreover the use of stereotactic body radiation (SBRT) has increased, which uses not simply small field sizes, but small jaw and field sizes together. Having reference data for these small fields that is reliable would be invaluable to the physics community. Our study has gathered these values and the data distributions from the Radiological Physics Center's (RPC) site visits between 1990 and the present.Methods:For all measurements, the RPC used a 25 × 25 × 25cm water phantom placed at 100cm SSD. All measurements were made with an Exradin A16 cylindrical ion chamber at an effective depth of 10 cm. A total of 42 Varian machine measurements were used to compose the data for a 6 MV beam and 5 TrueBeam 6 MV flattening filter free (FFF) beams were used for FFF data.Results:Jaw/MLC fields were measured for both 6 MV and 6 MF FFF beams with the jaws and MLCs both at the following field sizes: 6×6, 4×4, 3×3, and 2×2cm. Measurements were normalized to the 10×10 field readings (defined by the jaws and MLC). Spread in the data was minimal and demonstrates a high level of accuracy of acquired data.Conclusion:Small field Jaw/MLC reference data for Varian 6MV and 6 MV FFF beams has been analyzed and presented here, composed of the aggregation of numerous RPC site visits. Obtaining reliable small field data remains difficult, however the RPC has collected high fidelity small field Jaw/MLC data. The data are presented as a reference along with their distributions, in such a way that the physicist can act based upon their own desired agreement with the reference data.

1. The relationships between the agricultural landscape structure, as a function of arable field size and the occurrence of permanent cover, and the abundance of insect food and partridge chick survival were studied in two areas of Poland. One area had small and large fields (Czempin) and the other had only small fields (Kutno). Brood size was used as an index of chick survival and the number of plant bugs (Heteroptera) as an index of chick food resources. 2. The number of plant bugs in cereals increased with permanent cover in Czempin, but no relationship was found in Kutno where there was more permanent cover and smaller field sizes. 3. The average number of plant bugs was higher in small arable fields than in large fields. However, the number of insects near permanent cover in small and large arable fields did not differ. 4. The mean brood size of partridges in small arable fields increased with permanent cover in Czempin, but not in Kutno. No differences were found in mean brood size between small and large arable fields. 5. Simplifying the agricultural landscape structure could be an important feature of agricultural intensification that results in lower partridge chick survival.

Suppose a distributed storage system containing <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">M</i> files is replicated across <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">N</i> servers, and a user wants to privately retrieve one file by accessing the servers such that the identity of the retrieved file is kept secret from any subset of up to <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i> servers, where each file can be viewed as a vector over the <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">q</i>-ary finite field Fq. A scheme designed for this purpose is called a <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i>-private information retrieval (T-PIR) scheme. We consider the problem of explicitly constructing capacity-achieving <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i>-PIR schemes over small finite fields. In this paper, we first provide a general framework for constructing explicit capacity-achieving <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i>-PIR schemes for all parameters, which only relies on an MDS array matrix with a special information set. To construct such an MDS array matrix, we propose a new family of matrices over finite fields, called the generalized minor matrices of the Moore matrix, and establish a series of key identities. By combining favourable properties of generalized minor matrices with our framework, we construct an explicit capacityachieving <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i>-PIR scheme with optimal sub-packetization over the field Fq, as small as possible, for three classes of parameters <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">N, T,M</i> ≥ 3. Specifically, the first class of construction works for all <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">N</i> = <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">d</i>(2<italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">t</i> − 1), <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i> = <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">dt</i>, and the field size <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">q</i> is the least prime power satisfying <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">q^t−1</i> ≥ <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">N</i>. Moreover, this construction generalizes the scheme proposed by Xu and Wang in 2022, which only considers the case of <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">N</i> = <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">d</i>(2<italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">t</i>−1), <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i> = dt with 2<italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">^t−1</i> ≥ <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">N</i>. For all <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">N</i> = <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">d</i>(2<italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">t</i> + 1), <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i> = dt, our second <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i>-PIR scheme is the first explicit construction, and the field size <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">q</i> is the least prime power satisfying <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">q^t</i> ≥ <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">N</i>, which is the smallest field size among all known explicit capacity-achieving <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i>-PIR schemes. Particularly, when 2<italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">^t</i> ≥ <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">N</i>, the field size of such constructions can be reduced to 2. In the case of <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">N</i> = 4<italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">s</i> and <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i> = 2<italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">s</i> + 1, our scheme is the first one to reduce the field size to <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">q</i> = 2. Compared with all known explicitly capacity-achieving <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i>-PIR schemes, the required field of our schemes has the smallest size.

Background: Accurate small radiation field dosimetry is essential in modern radiotherapy techniques such as stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT). Precise measurement of dosimetric parameters such as beam profile, percentage depth doses and output factor of these beams are complicated due to the electron disequilibrium and the steep dose gradients. In the present work the MAGIC polymer gel was used for dosimetry of small circular photon beams. The results of MAGIC were compared with EBT2 measurements and Monte Carlo (MC) calculations. Materials and Methods: Experimental measurements were made by mentioned dosimeters in four small field sizes 5, 10, 20 and 30 mm. The BEAMnrc code based on EGSnrc was used for simulation to calculate dosimetric parameters at these small fields. The phantoms were irradiated in a 6 MV photon beam Varian 2100C linear accelerator at SSD=100 cm. gel readout performed by 3 Tesla MRI scanner. Results: The results showed that the Percent depth dose (PDD) values measured and calculated by EBT2 film and MC had maximum local differences 4% and 5% with PDD values measured by MAGIC for field size of 5mm respectively. These differences decreased for larger field sizes. The measurements of output factor and penumbra (80%-20%) and (90%-10%) showed good agreement between the measurements and MC calculation. Conclusion: This study showed that the MAGIC polymer gel based on high resolution MRI images is useful detector for small field dosimetry but its agreement with MC is less than agreement of EBT2 film with MC.

AimTo characterise small photon beams using the Monte Carlo dose calculation algorithm for small field ranges in a heterogeneous medium.Materials and methodAn in-house phantom constructed with three different mediums, foam, polymethyl methacrylate and delrin resembling the densities of lung, soft tissue and bone respectively, was used in this study. Photon beam energies of 6 and 15 MV and field sizes of 8×8, 16×16, 24×24, 32×32 and 40×40 mm using X-ray voxel Monte Carlo (XVMC) algorithm using different detectors were validated. The relative output factor was measured in three different mediums having six different tissue interfaces; at the depth of 0, 1, 2 and 3 cm. The planar dose verification was undertaken using gafchromic films and considered dose at the lung and bone medium interfaces. For all the measurements, 104×104 mm was taken as the reference field size. The relative output factor for all other field sizes was taken and compared with planning system calculated values.ResultsFrom field size 16×16 mm and above, the relative output factors were analysed in bone and soft tissue medium having lung as first medium. The maximum deviations were observed as 1·8 and 1·3% for 6 MV and 2·5 and 1·1% for 15 MV photon beams for bone and soft tissue, respectively. For lung as measurement medium, the maximum deviation of 14·8 and 19·2% were observed and having bone as first medium with 8×8 mm for 6 and 15 MV photon beams, respectively. The fluence verification of dose spectrum for the lung–bone interface scenarios with smaller field sizes were found within 2% of deviation with treatment planning system (TPS).ConclusionThe accuracy of dose calculations for small field sizes in XVMC-based treatment planning algorithm was studied in different inhomogeneous mediums. It was found that the results correlated with measurement data for field size 16×16 mm and above. Noticeable deviation was observed for the smallest field size of 8×8 mm with interfaces of significant change in density. The observed results demands further analysis of work with smaller field sizes.

Due to their small collecting volume, diodes are commonly used in small field dosimetry. However, the relative sensitivity of a diode increases with decreasing small field size. Conversely, small air gaps have been shown to cause a significant decrease in the sensitivity of a detector as the field size is decreased. Therefore, this study uses Monte Carlo simulations to look at introducing air upstream to diodes such that they measure with a constant sensitivity across all field sizes in small field dosimetry. Varying thicknesses of air were introduced onto the upstream end of two commercial diodes (PTW 60016 photon diode and PTW 60017 electron diode), as well as a theoretical unenclosed silicon chip using field sizes as small as 5 mm × 5 mm. The metric used in this study represents the ratio of the dose to a point of water to the dose to the diode active volume, for a particular field size and location. The optimal thickness of air required to provide a constant sensitivity across all small field sizes was found by plotting as a function of introduced air gap size for various field sizes, and finding the intersection point of these plots. That is, the point at which was constant for all field sizes was found. The optimal thickness of air was calculated to be 3.3, 1.15 and 0.10 mm for the photon diode, electron diode and unenclosed silicon chip, respectively. The variation in these results was due to the different design of each detector. When calculated with the new diode design incorporating the upstream air gap, was equal to unity to within statistical uncertainty (0.5%) for all three diodes. Cross-axis profile measurements were also improved with the new detector design. The upstream air gap could be implanted on the commercial diodes via a cap consisting of the air cavity surrounded by water equivalent material. The results for the unclosed silicon chip show that an ideal small field dosimetry diode could be created by using a silicon chip with a small amount of air above it.

BackgroundIn the IAEA TRS‐483 Code of Practice (CoP), rectangular small field sizes are approximated to equivalent square small fields using the definition proposed by Cranmer‐Sargison et al. However, the CoP estimates the uncertainties associated with this formula only for rectangular fields with dimensions within the range 0.7<X/Y<1.4.PurposeThe objective of the present study was to compare the accuracy of the Cranmer‐Sargison definition with other formulas for equivalent square small fields in the context of measuring field output factors (FOFs) for rectangular small fields, both within and outside the range covered by the CoP.MethodsMeasurements were conducted using Gafchromic EBT4 radiochromic films. The models compared included Cranmer‐Sargison, Sterling, Superellipse, Sterling‐Partial Superellipse, Sterling‐Superellipse, Vadash and Bjärngard, and Fogliata. The most accurate definition of equivalent square field size was identified as the one yielding the lowest discrepancy between measured and analytical values, with the log‐likelihood of the measurements selected as the metric. Analytical values were derived using the function introduced by Sauer and Wilbert, which relates FOFs to equivalent square field sizes.ResultsThe best results were achieved with the Fogliata model, followed in terms of accuracy by the Sterling‐Partial Superellipse model. The Sterling‐Superellipse and Vadash and Bjärngard models came next. It should be noted that the Sterling‐Partial Superellipse and Sterling‐Superellipse models rely solely on the geometric shape of the irradiation field size, whereas the Fogliata and Vadash and Bjärngard models incorporate a fitting parameter. The Sterling definition, while less accurate than these models, improved upon the Cranmer‐Sargison definition and retained computational simplicity. Finally, the Cranmer‐Sargison and Superellipse models exhibited the largest discrepancies.ConclusionsThis study identified several definitions of equivalent square small field size that could refine the IAEA TRS‐483 CoP by improving the accuracy of field output correction factors for rectangular small fields. Among these definitions, the Fogliata model obtained the best results.

Joanna E. Cygler, Jan Seuntjens, J. Daniel Bourland, M. Saiful Huq, Josep Puxeu Vaque, Daniel Zucca Aparicio, Tatiana Krylova, Yuri Kirpichev, Eric Ford, Caridad BorrasStereotactic Radiation Therapy (SRT) utilizes small static and dynamic (IMRT) fields, to successfully treat malignant and benign diseases using techniques such as Stereotactic Radiosurgery (SRS) and Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy (SBRT). SRT is characterized by sharp dose gradients for individual fields and their resultant dose distributions. For appropriate targets, small field radiotherapy offers improved treatment quality by allowing better sparing of organs at risk while delivering the prescribed target dose. Specialized small field treatment delivery systems, such as robotic‐controlled linear accelerators, gamma radiosurgery units, and dynamic arc linear accelerators may utilize rigid fixation, image guidance, and tumor tracking, to insure precise dose delivery to static or moving targets. However, in addition to great advantages, small field delivery techniques present special technical challenges for dose calibration due to unique geometries and small field sizes not covered by existing reference dosimetry protocols such as AAPM TG‐51 or IAEA TRS 398. In recent years extensive research has been performed to understand small field dosimetry and measurement instrumentation. AAPM, IAEA and ICRU task groups are expected to provide soon recommendations on the dosimetry of small radiation fields. In this symposium we will: 1] discuss the physics, instrumentation, methodologies and challenges for small field radiation dose measurements; 2] review IAEA and ICRU recommendations on prescribing, recording and reporting of small field radiation therapy; 3] discuss selected clinical applications and technical aspects for specialized image‐guided, small field, linear accelerator based treatment techniques such as IMRT and SBRT. Learning Objectives: To learn the physics of small fields in contrast to dosimetry of conventional fields To learn about detectors suitable for small fields To learn about the role of Monte Carlo simulations in determination of small field output factors To provide an overview of the IAEA small field dosimetry recommendations To provide an overview of the content of the ICRU report on Prescribing, Reporting and Recording of Small Field Radiation Therapy. To learn about special technical considerations in delivering IMRT and SBRT treatments To appreciate specific challenges of IMRT implementationJ. Seuntjens, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council; Canadian Institutes of Health Research

The goal of this study was to investigate small field output factors (OFs) for flattening filter‐free (FFF) beams on a dedicated stereotactic linear accelerator‐based system. From this data, the collimator exchange effect was quantified, and detector‐specific correction factors were generated. Output factors for 16 jaw‐collimated small fields (from 0.5 to 2 cm) were measured using five different detectors including an ion chamber (CC01), a stereotactic field diode (SFD), a diode detector (Edge), Gafchromic film (EBT3), and a plastic scintillator detector (PSD, W1). Chamber, diodes, and PSD measurements were performed in a Wellhofer water tank, while films were irradiated in solid water at 100 cm source‐to‐surface distance and 10 cm depth. The collimator exchange effect was quantified for rectangular fields. Monte Carlo (MC) simulations of the measured configurations were also performed using the EGSnrc/DOSXYZnrc code. Output factors measured by the PSD and verified against film and MC calculations were chosen as the benchmark measurements. Compared with plastic scintillator detector (PSD), the small volume ion chamber (CC01) underestimated output factors by an average of ‐1.0%±4.9%(max.=‐11.7% for 0.5×0.5cm2 square field). The stereotactic diode (SFD) overestimated output factors by 2.5%±0.4%(max.=3.3% for 0.5×1cm2 rectangular field). The other diode detector (Edge) also overestimated the OFs by an average of 4.2%±0.9%(max.=6.0% for 1×1cm2 square field). Gafchromic film (EBT3) measurements and MC calculations agreed with the scintillator detector measurements within 0.6%±1.8% and 1.2%±1.5%, respectively. Across all the X and Y jaw combinations, the average collimator exchange effect was computed: 1.4%±1.1% (CC01), 5.8%±5.4% (SFD), 5.1%±4.8% (Edge diode), 3.5%±5.0% (Monte Carlo), 3.8%±4.7% (film), and 5.5%±5.1% (PSD). Small field detectors should be used with caution with a clear understanding of their behaviors, especially for FFF beams and small, elongated fields. The scintillator detector exhibited good agreement against Gafchromic film measurements and MC simulations over the range of field sizes studied. The collimator exchange effect was found to be important at these small field sizes. Detector‐specific correction factors were computed using the scintillator measurements as the benchmark.PACS number(s): 87.56.Fc

As the practice of using high-energy photon beams to create therapeutic radiation fields of subcentimeter dimensions (as in intensity-modulated radiotherapy or stereotactic radiosurgery) grows, so too does the need for accurate verification of beam output at these small fields in which standard practices of dose verification break down. This study investigates small-field output factors measured using a small plastic scintillation detector (PSD), as well as a 0.01 cm3 ionization chamber. Specifically, output factors were measured with both detectors using small fields that were defined by either the X-Y collimator jaws or the multileaf collimator (MLC). A PSD of 0.5 mm diameter and 2 mm length was irradiated with 6 and 18 MV linac beams. The PSD was positioned vertically at a source-to-axis distance of 100 cm, at 10 cm depth in a water phantom, and irradiated with fields ranging in size from 0.5 x 0.5 to 10 x 10 cm2. The field sizes were defined either by the collimator jaws alone or by a MLC alone. The MLC fields were constructed in two ways: with the closed leaves (i.e., those leaves that were not opened to define the square field) meeting at either the field center line or at a 4 cm offset from the center line. Scintillation light was recorded using a CCD camera and an estimation of error in the median-filtered signals was made using the bootstrapping technique. Measurements were made using a CC01 ionization chamber under conditions identical to those used for the PSD. Output factors measured by the PSD showed close agreement with those measured using the ionization chamber for field sizes of 2.0 x 2.0 cm2 and above. At smaller field sizes, the PSD obtained output factors as much as 15% higher than those found using the ionization chamber by 0.6 x 0.6 cm2 jaw-defined fields. Output factors measured with no offset of the closed MLC leaves were as much as 20% higher than those measured using a 4 cm leaf offset. The authors' results suggest that PSDs provide a useful and possibly superior alternative to existing dosimetry systems for small fields, as they are inherently less susceptible to volume-averaging and perturbation effects than larger, air-filled ionization chambers. Therefore, PSDs may provide more accurate small-field output factor determination, regardless of the collimation mechanism.

Purpose: Dose distribution characteristics for small radiation fields can be very difficult to determine. In this work a MAGIC (Methacrylic and Ascorbic acid in Gelatin Initiated by Copper) 3D polymer gel is combined with 7T micro‐MR imaging for high resolution measurements of the small field (&lt;1cm) 3D dose distributions. Methods: MAGIC(Gelatin 9%; Methacrylic acid 4%; CuSO4 0.1 mM; Ascorbic ascid 2mM; Glucose 22%) 3D gel phantoms were irradiated with very small 6MV x‐ray beams (5x5 mm2 and 10 × 10 mm2 square fields; 2mm diameter round field). Gel dose measurements were performed in Bruker 7T mirco‐MRI and GE Signa 3T scanners and with simultaneously‐obtained radiochromic films. T2 maps were acquired using a 10‐echo‐Multi‐Spin Multi‐Echo (MSME) pulse sequence on both MR scanners. Normalized 3D dose maps were calculated in Matlab. Results: Dose distributions determined from 30 minute scans for the 5×5 mm2 and 10×10 mm2 square fields on the 7T MR unit were superior to 3T MR unit in spatial resolution (7T: 0.156mm × 0.156mm × 1mm voxel; 3T: 0.254mm × 0.254mm × 2mm voxel). For the very small field size (2mm diameter), the MAGIC gel with 7T MRI provided even better quality dose distribution images (1.5hour scan; spatial resolution 79um ×79um × 1mm and; 12 hour scan: spatial resolution 38um × 38um × 1mm), 3T MRI was not able to read accurate dose profile due to a low SNR in the same 1.5hour scan time. Conclusions: This study indicates that the MAGIC polymer gel with 7T micro‐MRI for 3D dose readout can potentially be used for dosimetric characterization of very small radiation beams, including measurements for micro‐beams (field size ∼ 100um). Techniques and limitations for MAGIC gel dosimetry via high field MR imaging for dosimetric assessment are detailed in this work.

Measurement, modelling and reporting of small field output factors requires systematic approaches for accurate dosimetry

This paper presents a practical approach to clinical dosimetry for electron beams at extended source-to-surface distance (SSD). Characteristics of electron beams from a Siemens MD-2 accelerator are presented at a nominal SSD of 100 cm and an extended SSD of 115 cm. Relative output factors are measured at both 100 and 115 cm SSDs for a range of square field sizes for each beam energy. The change of output with SSD does not follow the inverse square law, if the nominal SSD is used. This deviation is larger for lower beam energy and smaller field sizes. An effective SSD, , has been determined at for each beam energy as a function of field size. A comprehensive approach to treatment time calculations is proposed.

Purpose: To commission and characterize a novel small animal irradiator, the XRad225cx from Precision X‐Ray Inc. This system is capable of delivering both square and circular fields ranging in size from 1mm to 40mm. The combination of very small field size and relatively low energy (225kV) represents a substantial challenge in acquiring accurate dosimetry beam data. This work reports on commissioning studies using 2 independent dosimetry systems: EBT2 radiochromic film and PRESAGETM /optical‐CT 3D dosimetry. Methods: Initial measurements were made with 6×8cm pieces of EBT2 radiochromic film. Output factors were determined at 3 depths (0, 0.5 and 2cm) from films irradiated normally resting on the surface or sandwiched in solid water. Percent‐depth‐dose (PDD) measurements were made from films also sandwiched in solid water and irradiated edge on. Independent 3D dosimetry measurements were obtained using PRESAGETM radiochromic dosimeters and imaged with the Duke Large field‐of‐view Optical‐CT Scanner (DLOS). Output factors and PDDˈs were obtained using a combination of small fields. Results: The relative output factors and PDDˈs obtained from EBT2 and PRESAGETM showed agreement below 1 cm depth. For field sizes &gt;1cm, relative output factors were found to be stable (∼1.00) with differences between PRESAGETM and EBT2 &lt;6%. At smaller field sizes the output relative to the 20 mm cone decreased substantially, down to ∼0.5 for the smallest 1 mm cone. A slightly greater drop was observed in the PRESAGETM measurements, which is currently being investigated. Conclusions: Output factors and PDD curves were successfully obtained for all cones using a combination of EBT2 and PRESAGETM. Consistency was observed between both independent measurements after correcting for the lack of exact water equivalence of both the solid water and PRESAGETM. The 3D dosimetry system has potential advantages in terms of convenience, efficiency and comprehensiveness when commissioning small fields.Funded by NIH R01CA100835 and NIH S10‐3034539