Power switch characterization for fine-grained dynamic voltage scaling

Energy consumption has become a major constraint in providing increased functionality for devices with small form factors. Dynamic voltage and frequency scaling has been identified as an effective approach for reducing the energy consumption of embedded systems. Earlier works on dynamic voltage scaling focused mainly on performing voltage scaling when the CPU is waiting for memory subsystem or concentrated chiefly on loop nests and/or subroutine calls having sufficient number of dynamic instructions. This paper concentrates on coarser program regions and for the first time uses program phase behavior for performing dynamic voltage scaling. Program phases are annotated at compile time with mode switch instructions. Further, we relate the Dynamic Voltage Scaling Problem to the Multiple Choice Knapsack Problem, and use well known heuristics to solve it efficiently. Also, we develop a simple integer linear program formulation for this problem. Experimental evaluation on a set of media applications reveal that our heuristic method obtains a 38% reduction in energy consumption on an average, with a performance degradation of 1% and upto 45% reduction in energy with a performance degradation of 5%. Further, the energy consumed by the heuristic solution is within 1% of the optimal solution obtained from the ILP approach.KeywordsExecution TimeSupply VoltageKnapsack ProblemBasic BlockProgram RegionThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

As the computing environments are continuously moving towards battery-operated mobile and handheld systems, the development of energy-saving mechanisms for such devices has recently become a technical challenge. Dynamic voltage scaling (DVS) has historically been considered an effective method to reduce the processor power consumption. Conventional DVS techniques typically consider only processor utilisation issues in a policy-making process. However, as memory-bound multimedia applications are becoming popular in handheld devices, the DVS policies should consider the so-called ‘memory wall’ problem to maximise energy gain. Recent DVS techniques suffer from the inefficiency of their policies caused by the memory-wall problem while executing multimedia applications, and no previous research on DVS considers the problem explicitly. The existence of the memory wall problem in a real system is revealed and a metric that can be used to detect the problem in advance is found. A memory-aware DVS (M-DVS) technique that takes the memory wall problem fully into consideration is proposed. The experimental results on a PDA show that M-DVS can reduce ∼8% of additional power consumption, compared with conventional DVS, without any QoS degradation for handling multimedia clips.

Reduction of power dissipations in CMOS circuits needs to be addressed for portable battery devices. Selection of appropriate transistor library to minimise leakage current, implementation of low power design architectures, power management implementation, and the choice of chip packaging, all have impact on power dissipation and are important considerations in design and implementation of integrated circuits for low power applications. Energy-efficient architecture is highly desirable for battery operated systems, which operates in a wide variation of operating scenarios. Energy-efficient design aims to reconfigure its own architectures to scale down energy consumption depending upon the throughput and quality requirement. An energy efficient system should be able to decide its minimum power requirements by dynamically scaling its own operating frequency, supply voltage or the threshold voltage according to a variety of operating scenarios. The increasing product demand for application specific integrated circuit or processor for independent portable devices has influenced designers to implement dedicated processors with ultra low power requirements. One of these dedicated processors is a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) processor, which is widely used in signal processing for numerous applications such as, wireless telecommunication and biomedical applications where the demand for extended battery life is extremely high. This paper presents the design and performance analysis of a low power shared memory FFT processor incorporating dynamic voltage scaling. Dynamic voltage scaling enables power supply scaling into various supply voltage levels. The concept behind the proposed solution is that if the speed of the main logic core can be adjusted according to input load or amount of processor's computation "just enough" to meet the requirement. The design was implemented using 0.12 μm ST-Microelectronic 6-metal layer CMOS dual- process technology in Cadence Analogue Environment.

Shrinking feature sizes, reduced voltages, and higher transistor count of nano-scale silicon chips challenge designers in terms of performance, power consumption, and reliability. This paper investigates the effect of simultaneous use of dynamic voltage and frequency scaling (DVFS) and body biasing (BB) on power consumption, reliability, and performance. An analytical model of reliability as a function of body bias voltage, supply voltage, and frequency is proposed. We derive a three dimensional optimization problem by exploiting proposed reliability model in conjunction with power consumption and performance model. The resulting problem is solved using widely-used geometric optimization to identify optimal supply voltage and body bias voltage and then is validated using accurate simulation. Afterwards, it is demonstrated how joint energy-performance-reliability space optimization method can be used in an adaptive reliability-aware power management systems. Finally, we show that combined soft error aware BB and DVFS is capable of improving power consumption about 30% in comparison to reliability-aware DVFS only for the same level of reliability and performance constraints.

In this paper, we present a new energy-aware scheduling scheme for real-time applications using architectures that employ voltage scaling technologies. Both dynamic voltage scaling (DVS) and dynamic threshold voltage scaling (DVTHS) can benefit from this scheduling scheme. The start time of each task is adapted to enhance the efficiency of voltage scaling schemes while still satisfying the required time feasibility. The introduced scheduling scheme is able to escape local minima and it can generate near-optimal schedules in terms of energy reduction. The scheduling paradigm is integrated into our automated and multiobjective system-level co-synthesis tool that performs system optimization. We report in this paper up to about 30% higher energy reduction compared to only performance-aware scheduling.KeywordsSchedule AlgorithmSchedule SchemeTime ScheduleTask GraphEnergy ReductionThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

The functionality of embedded systems is ever growing. The computational power of embedded systems is growing to match this demand, with embedded multiprocessor systems becoming more common. The limitations of embedded systems are not always related to chip size but are commonly due to energy and/or power constraints. While it can be possible to embed a more powerful Multiprocessor System on Chip (MPSoC), it is not always possible to provide an energy or power supply that meets its demands within the device’s size and weight requirements. Power management through Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS) enables the device to be run at less than its maximum voltage and frequency, allowing high computational capability when necessary while conserving power at other times. Embedded systems commonly perform real-time functionality. A real-time application has an associated formal model to verify that it meets its timing requirements. This formal model is used to perform a worst-case timing analysis to ensure that the application meets its requirements. These models incorporate the worst-case timing of the application’s computation and communication. Timing changes due to power management must also be taken into account, complicating the verification process. The drive for evermore functionality has led to mixed time-criticality systems, in which multiple applications of various timing criticalities share the same (hardware) resources. This complicates the verification process further as the timing interference due to shared resource contention must be taken into account. A monolithic verification effort is therefore traditionally required after system integration and must be carried out again if any modifications are made that affect the timing of any of the applications. The problem that we aim to solve in this work is to enable real-time applications to perform independent execution and power management without violating their timing requirements or invalidating the timing verification of concurrently executing applications. To solve this problem, we contribute the Composable and Predictable Microkernel (CoMik) to composably and predictably virtualise processors. When used in combination with composable and predictable memory controllers and interconnect (as provided by the Composable and Predictable System-on-Chip (CompSOC) platform), these virtual processors cannot interfere with each other’s timing by even a single cycle. If whatever executes on the virtual processors (e.g. an Operating System (OS) or an application directly) has a real-time requirement, it can be verified independently of whatever executes on the concurrent virtual processors and other virtual resources. To enable formally analysable application execution, we contribute the Predictable Operating System (POSe) that enables dataflow applications to be executed on the (virtualised) processor. We contribute a combined application and platform dataflow graph, including an algorithm to automate this process. When annotated with worst-case timings, the combined application and system graph is then used to verify that the application meets its timing requirement. If the application’s performance is better than its requirement (e.g. when the input or platform behaviour are better than worst case), its performance can be reduced using DVFS to achieve a reduction in power consumption. We contribute an off-line convex optimisation that uses the combined application and platform dataflow model to derive static run-time operating frequency levels to achieve low power consumption. The off-line technique is able to exploit static slack in the schedule, but not dynamic run-time slack due to variations in task execution times. Before dynamic slack can be used it must be possible to observe it. For this purpose, CoMik provides independent power, energy and timing accounting per virtual processor. This enables each virtual processor to be assigned individual power and energy budgets and POSe applications to be assigned timing budgets. We contribute a description and model of how energy and power budgets can be distributed between multiple virtual processors, enabling whatever executes on the virtual processor to perform composable independent power-management without affecting the ability of other virtual processors from using their entire budget allocation. Using CoMik’s accounting infrastructure, we also demonstrate how the quality of applications can be dynamically scaled to assist meeting timing, energy or power requirements. We further contribute a distributed dynamic power management policy that enables dataflow applications that are mapped onto multiple (virtual) processors to make distributed dynamic slack observations and local power-management decisions. We demonstrate the applicability of the presented techniques on an implemented Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) prototype of a CompSOC hardware platform instance, using an H.263 decoder as a case-study application. We show that our techniques do not only work in theory, but that they are also implementable and implemented.

Along with the prevailing of mobile devices, the demand for efficient power consumption has become one of the major issues in designing embedded system. Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS) is a technique that can reduce energy consumption by changing the processor voltage levels dynamically. Fixed Priority with Preemption Threshold (FPPT) scheduling is a scheduling policy that includes preemptive and non-preemptive aspect of scheduling policy. In this paper, an efficient universal fixed priority DVS algorithm (FPPT-DVS) will be presented. This algorithm has the advantage of both Fixed Priority Preemptive (FPP) DVS scheduling and Fixed Priority Non-Preemptive (FPNP) DVS scheduling. FPPT-DVS algorithm also combines the on-line DVS and off-line DVS together. Experimental results show that the proposed FPPT-DVS algorithm can save up to 20% energy over the existing DVS algorithms.

Numerous Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS) methods have been proposed over the years, and since several commercial programmable processors supporting DVS are now available, the demand for DVS evaluation tools is obvious. In this paper we propose a simulator based on soft- and hardware parameters that make it possible to get realistic performance evaluations from a high abstraction level. Traditionally, DVS methods have been tested using unrealistic assumptions, both from a software and hardware point of view, but this problem is now alleviated due to our simulator. We show that DVS methods are very depended on the application specification as well as the processor parameters.

Compiler-directed dynamic voltage scaling (DVS) is an effective low-power technique in real-time applications, where compiler inserts voltage scaling points in a real-time application, and supply voltage and clock frequency are adjusted to the relationship between the remaining time and remaining workload at each voltage scaling point. In this paper we present the analytical energy model of proportional dynamic voltage scaling in real-time applications. Using the analytical model, we theoretically prove the optimal configuration of voltage scaling points that minimizes energy consumption. Furthermore, in order to seek the optimal configuration taking into account voltage scaling overhead in the most frequent execution case, we propose a configuration methodology, where a profile-based method constructs the abstract execution pattern of an application, voltage scaling points are inserted into the abstract execution pattern by the optimal configuration without taking into account voltage scaling overhead, and then we can find the optimal configuration considering voltage scaling overhead by deleting some voltage scaling points from the execution pattern. Finally, the remaining points are inserted into the application by compiler. The simulation results show that, when taking into account voltage scaling overhead, the configuration methodology reduces energy consumption efficiently.KeywordsSupply VoltageClock FrequencyOptimal ConfigurationSlack TimeDynamic Voltage ScalingThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

The implementation of a low-voltage zero-voltage-switching quasi-square-wave (ZVS-QSW) buck converter capable of meeting the future challenges of low-voltage VRMs is presented. By eliminating switching losses, high-efficiency operation at switching frequencies beyond 1 MHz is achieved. The design uses novel high-speed dead-time-locked-loops with fast dead-time error rejection to ensure zero-voltage-switching under dynamic loads and variable output conditions. The ZVS-QSW converter, which was implemented in a mixed-signal 0.18 m CMOS process, has a measured efficiency of 82% at 5 MHz with a 1.4 V output. The ZVS-QSW converter is intended to supply the next generation VLSI chips with a variable supply voltage for dynamic voltage scaling (DVS) applications. DVS refers to the real-time scaling of the supply voltage to the VLSI chip to minimize dynamic power consumption, while satisfying a variable target clock frequency. Several DVS strategies are examined, and it is shown that DVS can be applied to the ZVS-QSW converter using a dual-mode configuration. An experimental DVS test-bench was developed using a state-of-the-art Xilinx CPLD capable of operating from 1.35 V to 1.8 V. The PID controlled DVS system achieves the maximum V/sub DD/ transition in 22 /spl mu/s.

Recent research has shown that the combination of dynamic voltage scaling (DVS) and adaptive body biasing (ABB) yields high energy reductions in embedded systems. Nevertheless, the implementation of DVS and ABB requires a significant system cost, making it less attractive for many small systems. In this paper we demonstrate that it is possible to reduce this system cost and to achieve comparable energy saving to that obtained using combined DVS and ABB scheme through a co-synthesis methodology which is aware of the tasks' power-composition profile (the ratio of the dynamic power to the leakage power). In particular, the presented methodology performs a power management selection at the architectural level, i. e., it decides upon which processing elements to be equipped with which power management scheme (DVS, ABB, or combined DVS and ABB) - with the aim to achieve high energy savings at a reduced implementation cost. The proposed technique maps, schedules, and voltage scales applications specified as task graphs with timing constraints. Detailed experiments including a real-life benchmark are conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed methodology.

In recent years, there has been a rapid and wide spread of non-traditional computing platforms, especially mobile and portable computing devices. As applications become increasingly sophisticated and processing power increases, the most serious limitation on these devices is the available battery life. Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS) has been a key technique in exploiting the hardware characteristics of processors to reduce energy dissipation by lowering the supply voltage and operating frequency. The DVS algorithms are shown to be able to make dramatic energy savings while providing the necessary peak computation power in general-purpose systems. However, for a large class of applications in embedded real-time systems like cellular phones and camcorders, the variable operating frequency interferes with their deadline guarantee mechanisms, and DVS in this context, despite its growing importance, is largely overlooked/under-developed. To provide real-time guarantees, DVS must consider deadlines and periodicity of real-time tasks, requiring integration with the real-time scheduler. In this paper, we present a class of novel algorithms called real-time DVS (RT-DVS) that modify the OS's real-time scheduler and task management service to provide significant energy savings while maintaining real-time deadline guarantees. We show through simulations and a working prototype implementation that these RT-DVS algorithms closely approach the theoretical lower bound on energy consumption, and can easily reduce energy consumption 20% to 40% in an embedded real-time system.

Dynamic voltage scaling (DVS) reduces the power consumption of processors when peak performance is unnecessary. However, the achievable power saving by DVS alone is becoming limited as leakage power increases. In this paper, we show how the simultaneous use of adaptive body biasing (ABB) and DVS can be used to reduce power in high-performance processors. Analytical models of the leakage current, dynamic power, and frequency as functions of supply voltage and body bias are derived and verified with SPICE simulation. We then show how to determine the correct trade-off between supply voltage and body bias for a given clock frequency and duration of operation. The usefulness of our approach is evaluated on real workloads obtained using real-time monitoring of processor utilization for four applications. The results demonstrate that application of simultaneous DVS and ABB results in an average energy reduction of 48% over DVS alone.

Dynamic voltage scaling with fully-integrated voltage regulator is widely adopted in digital systems for energy-efficient computing. This paper presents a fully-integrated reconfigurable switched-capacitor (SC) power converter with a cascode low-dropout regulator (LDO) mode for much improved power supply rejection (PSR). By reusing two power switches in a typical SC converter, an LDO with cascode power transistors can be realized with negligible area and power overhead, achieving good PSR and transient performances. This work is designed in a 28nm bulk CMOS process. The cascode LDO exhibits −40dB PSR up to 10MHz, and −25dB worst case PSR for all frequencies, with only 200mV dropout voltage and 90μA quiescent current.

Over the last years, DVS (Dynamic Voltage Scaling) hasbeen adopted as an effective technique for reducing energyconsumption in embedded systems. In the context of hard real-time embedded systems, several scheduling approaches have been developed to address voltage scaling together with stringent timing constraints. However, intertask relations as well as overheads, such as preemptions and frequency/voltage switchings, have been neglected, in such a way that those approaches may generate schedules that may not properly meet system constraints. This work presents a method for hard real-time systems scheduling considering dynamic voltage scaling, overheads, precedence and exclusion relations. The proposed work adopts a formal model based on time Petri nets in order to find a feasible schedule using apre-runtime approach that satisfies timing and energy constraints.