Processing the ores of rare-earth elements

Rare earth elements in the Pearl River Delta of China: Potential impacts of the REE industry on water, suspended particles and oysters

An evaluation of the supply risk for China's strategic metallic mineral resources

Recycling of rare earths: a critical review

Balancing economic growth and environmental protection: A sustainable approach to Malaysia's rare-earth industry

This paper reviews research on assessment of rare earth (RE) supply and demand relationships in recent decade from four study fields: (i) criticality assessment of RE supply risk, (ii) RE projects risk assessment and effect on the global RE supply-demand pattern, (iii) RE international pricing power, and (iv) China's RE trade policies. The study results serve as a stepping stones for the additional research on this issue. At last, some research agendas are proposed respectively from study fields, objects, and assessment methods.

Distribution of rare earth elements (REEs) and their roles in plant growth: A review

Global critical materials markets: An agent-based modeling approach

This special volume provides a comprehensive review of the current state of knowledge for rare earth and critical elements in ore deposits. The first six chapters are devoted to rare earth elements (REEs) because of the unprecedented interest in these elements during the past several years. The following eight chapters describe critical elements in a number of important ore deposit types. These chapters include a description of the deposit type, major deposits, critical element mineralogy and geochemistry, processes controlling ore-grade enrichment, and exploration guides. This volume represents an important contribution to our understanding of where, how, and why individual critical elements occur and should be of use to both geoscientists and public policy analysts. The term “critical minerals” was coined in a 2008 National Research Council report (National Research Council, 2008). Although the NRC report used the term “critical minerals,” its focus was primarily on individual chemical elements. The two factors used in the NRC report to rank criticality were (1) the degree to which a commodity is essential, and (2) the risk of supply disruption for the commodity. Technological advancements and changes in lifestyles have changed the criticality of elements; many that had few historic uses are now essential for our current lifestyles, green technologies, and military applications. The concept of element criticality is useful for evaluation of the fragility of commodity markets. This fragility is commonly due to a potential risk of supply disruption, which may be difficult to quantify because it can be affected by political, economic, geologic, geographic, and environmental variables. Identifying potential sources for some of the elements deemed critical can be challenging. Because many of these elements have had minor historic usage, exploration for them has been limited. Thus, as this volume highlights, the understanding of the occurrence and genesis of critical elements in various ore deposit models is much less well defined than for base and precious metals. A better understanding of the geologic and geochemical processes that lead to ore-grade enrichment of critical elements will aid in determining supply risk and was a driving factor for preparation of this volume. Understanding the gaps in our knowledge of the geology and geochemistry of critical elements should help focus future research priorities. Critical elements may be recovered either as primary commodities or as by-products from mining of other commodities. For example, nearly 90% of world production of niobium (Nb) is from the Araxá niobium mine (Brazil), whereas gallium (Ga) is recovered primarily as a by-product commodity of bauxite mining or as a by-product of zinc processing from a number of sources worldwide.

국제 정치 경제 상황의 급변에 따라 광물에너지자원 안정적 확보의 문제가 점점 커지고 있기에, 중국은 안정적인 광물에너지자원 확보를 위한 전략과 정책 수립에 만전을 가하고 있다. 중국은 희토류수출 쿼터제 폐지이후에 희토류산업 정책시행 방침을 수립하였고, 6대 희토류기업이 전국의 모든 희토류 광산 및 정련제련기업을 통합하고자 한다. 중국은 비전통 석유 가스 탐사 개발 투자를 늘리고 적극적인 기술연구개발 등을 통해 중국내 에너지 안보를 제고하고자 하고, 세계 최대의 셰일가스 부존국가로서 상업생산을 증진하기 위한 기술개발과 조사 탐사활동에 매진하고 있다. 중국은 해외에서 안정적인 자원 확보를 위해 장기계약 추진과 지분투자 또는 공동투자 벤처를 만들고 있다. 중국은 경제발전과 연동된 자원산업 발전전략으로는 자원사업과 환경산업 발전전략의 통합, 자원관리 국제화, 공급선 다양화 및 고도화, 산업연계전략 강화, 집단화 및 다각화 전략을 제시하고 있다. Due to growing problems securing stable mineral and energy resources with international political and economic changes, China has dedicated itself to strategies and policies to enhance its stable mineral and energy resources security. China has established a rare earth elements(REE) industry policy after the abolition of the REE exports quota system. China's six large REE companies have also been integrated into REE mining, smelting and refining companies. Efforts have been increased to enhance China's energy security through unconventional oil and gas exploration and development investment, as well as effort in R&D. The country will focus on technology development and exploration to promote commercial production of unconventional oil and gas based on countries with shale gas. China is making long-term contracts and joint ventures to ensure the acquisition of reliable mineral and energy resources from abroad. Government of China has proposed a range of initiatives, such as the integration of resources development strategies and environmental development strategies, internationalization of resource management, supply diversification and advancement, strengthening industry linking strategy, grouping and diversification strategy.

Rare earth is an important strategic mineral resource for national economy and national security. As the largest producer and exporter of rare earth, China’s rare earth industry has problems associated with excessive production, mismatched pricing power and environmental pollution. Therefore, an in-depth study of the rare earth industry security is necessary. Based on proposed definition for mineral resource security, this paper established a rare earth resource security evaluation model based on the “driver-pressure-state-impact-response” conceptual model using an extended TODIM (an acronym in Portuguese for interactive and multi-criteria decision-making) method combined with the E-DEMATEL (entropy and decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory) method. The model was then applied to Chinese rare earth data from 2006–2015 to assess the security, from which it was found that while the security level was not high, the overall trend was improving. Moreover, some critical response factors affecting REEs (rare earth elements) security are identified, including tariffs, research investment, etc. This paper not only introduces a new evaluation of REEs security but also explores the crucial indicators and the response mechanism.

It is now scientifically proven that specific categories of submarine raw materials, especially deep seas such as Mn and Fe oxides, polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulfides (SMS) and some deep-sea sediment categories, can have significant potential for some critical metals for future use. One characteristic of these deposits is that although they often have lower Rare Earth Elements (REE) contents than the well-known land deposits, their sizes are very extensive, much higher than the land-based deposits. Therefore, the future use of these submarine formations as a source of REEs can be an important alternative to the exponentially growing demand for these strategic metals. These formations have significant potential to be a source of REEs in the markets when they are extracted as byproducts of the most critical metals such as copper, nickel, cobalt and manganese, from Mn nodules. To prove how realistic, the extraction of REE from those deposits is in market terms, we studied the economotechnical dimension and the potential or REEs compared to those of the well-known on-land REE deposits. Two studies are presented concerning the existing exploration pre-feasibility cases for REEs originated from two existing licences granted by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) in the Clarion Clipperton Zone (CCZ). The examination of these two cases has clearly shown that compared to the corresponding deposits of REE inland, the total basket prices of these submarine deposits are higher due to the higher contents of heavy REE such as Nd, Pr and Dy and Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb and Y in these marine deposits. Considering that the prices in the international markets for most of the REE oxides between 2019 and 2021 were very high, they gave these deposits even greater economic value. The significant advantage of the mining and metallurgical treatment of these manganese nodules and cobalt-rich manganese crusts is also related to the fact that REEs are not part of the crystal lattice of the minerals that host them, in contrast to what happens with land-based deposits. This makes their metallurgical processing more manageable and cheaper. This fact makes mining and metallurgical treatment economically favourable. On the other hand, the very low Th and U concentrations in these deep-sea deposits do not pose environmental risks in many well-known land-based REE deposits.

Globalization describes a process by which regional economies, societies and cultures have become integrated. The process is driven by a combination of economic, technological, sociocultural, political and biological factors. Economic globalisation is the most important part of globalisation, whereby national economies get integrated into international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration and spread of technology. An important consequence of globalisation is the modernisation and industrialisa-tion of previously agrarian countries like India and China. These countries are gaining more knowledge andwealth. Asmore andmore peoplemove fromBelow-Poverty-Line to middle class status, they consume superior food, purchase more cars (Tata’s Nano car costing about USD 2200/- is the cheapest car in the world, and is highly affordable), consume more fuel and more consumer goods. This necessitated a massive development of natural resources, including mineral resources within these countries. Besides, these countries are also making large investments in developing mineral deposits in Africa and elsewhere. China produces 92% of the world’s Light Rare Earth Elements, like cerium andlanthanum, and 99% of the world’s Heavy Rare Earth Elements like Dysprosium. These rare earth elements are used in smart phones, clean energy industries, entertainment electronics, etc. There was an uproar from countries like Japan and USA which use the REE in their high-tech industries, when China restricted the export of the rare earth elements. USA had to intervene strongly to ease the situation. Steel which is used for the construction of the wind turbines, accounts for 90% ofthe cost of the turbine. Turbine fabrication costs are being brought down by replacing steel with lighter and more reliable material, and by improving the fatigue resistanceof the gear boxes. During the last five years, there has been a phenomenal growth in the use of rare-earth elements in the energy industries. Tiny quantities of dysprosium can make magnets in electrical motors lighter by 90%, thereby allowing larger and more powerful wind turbines to be mounted. Use of terbium can help cut the electricity use of lights by 80%. Dysprosium prices have gone up sevenfold since 2003, with the current market price being USD 116/kg. Terbium prices have quadrupled during the period 2003-2008 to USD 895/kg. The recession brought down the price to USD 451/kg. Mineral resources are finite, and when once used, are gone forever. Technology hasa great potential to address the depletion problem. Since globalization connects the world, more scientists from around the world would be able to work to find solutions to a global problem. For instance, since oil production is peaking, and oil plays a critical role in the world economy, attempts are being made to substitute natural gas in its place.

Against the background of the conceptual approach to the mineral resource problem, the concept of “strategic mineral resources” is generally characterized in terms of the leading factor in the mineral resource policy at the State level. The essence of this category of mineral resources and its pivotal position in the general scheme for solving the problem are revealed. It is emphasized that the problem of mineral resources is predetermined by a constantly existing contradiction between the vital necessity of the systematic consumption of mineral resources by a Human (community, state) and the restrictive access to them. The object of study is formulated by the authors of the work as the "Mineral Resource Poli-cy of the State", and the subject of the study is “Strategic Mineral Resources as the most significant part of the consumed mineral resources of the nation, considered as the leading factor in the mineral resource policy”. Consideration of the mineral resource policy on the example of a number of countries (USA, China, Russia, EU countries, Canada, Japan, etc.) shows that, although each of them is unique in this sense and has its own priorities, there are, at the same time, some similarities in understanding this problem and the ways to solve it. Herein lies a number of provisions, the analysis of which allows us to state that they represent the largest elements of efficiency ("tools") of the mineral resource policy of the "advanced" States which were developed in the process of practical activity. The studies show that the "decisive link" here is formed by the provisions related to the notion "strategic" in respect of certain types of mineral raw materials, as well as their "criticality" in terms of "supply risk" and "vulnerability from limited supply" from foreign sources. Thus, based on these empirical conclusions, it is possible to designate a “strategic line” and the main steps in solving the mineral resource problem. The decisive factor in this case, as the authors believe, is the correct allocation of the “strategic” status to the most important part of the mineral resources consumed by the nation, which allows us to create on this basis a high-ranking instrument of mineral resources policy.

Imaginaries in the Making: The Socio-Technical Imagination of Rare Earth Elements in Greenland's Future

Circular economy: A sustainable management strategy for rare earth elements consumption in Australia