Reduplication In Khiamniungan

Thao Triplication Robert Blust Abstract Following a brief review of Thao reduplication, instances of a more involved process termed "triplication" are presented and analyzed. It is concluded that while reduplication has a variety of functions with various lexical categories and may or may not be iconic, triplication functions only with verbs and is necessarily iconic. Triplication serves to increase the degree or intensity of the same semantic dimension invoked by reduplication. Another process termed "serial reduplication" functions only with numerals and involves two quite different semantic contributions to the resulting word. 1. Introduction. Despite the ubiquity of reduplication as a word-formation process in natural languages, triplication appears to be fairly unusual. Moreover, to my knowledge no bona fide case of quadruplication has ever been reported. The purpose of this note is to document the occurrence of productive triplication and at least minimal quadruplication in Thao, a moribund Austronesian language still spoken by about 15 elderly persons in the region of Sun-Moon Lake, central Taiwan. Passing reference to Thao triplication appears in Chang (1998:285), where examples based on ten different stems are given. However, a number of other instances of triplication have since been located in Blust (to appear), as well as a single case of unambiguous quadruplication.1 Before presenting the data that support this claim, a word is in order regarding definitions. When a speaker of Tok Pisin says Em i go go go go go 'He went on and on and on', are we speaking of a morphological process (in this case quintuplication) that is used in building words, or are we instead speaking of a syntactic device for modifying meaning? In this particular case it seems clear that the repetition of the verb has nothing to do with word-building, but is a syntactic means of expressing the continuation of an action. Cases such as this one, however, do suggest that the line between morphology and syntax may sometimes be hard to draw. All but one of the examples of triplication in Thao seem clearly to involve a word-building process. In many cases iteration of the base occurs in conjunction with affixation, and iteration itself may make use of more than one pattern in the [End Page 324] same base. Moreover, some words occur both in reduplicated and in triplicated form, with semantic nuances distinguishing the two. In many cases words formed by multiple iteration cannot be predicted from the general morphological or syntactic resources of the language, and so must be stored as separate lexical entries. In short, then, there is no a priori reason to doubt that the examples that will be given below are genuine instances of triplication, and in one instance, of quadruplication. 2. Thao Reduplication. In order to discuss triplication in Thao it will first be useful to have a concise overview of reduplication patterns in the language. Most of these are summarized in Chang (1998), which provides an analysis in terms of the constraint-based model of Optimality Theory. Chang (1998:279) recognizes 'three productive patterns of reduplication' in Thao: (1) full reduplication, (2) Ca- reduplication, and (3) rightward reduplication. The basic characteristics of each pattern are as follows: 2.1 Full Reduplication. In full reduplication "the base is maximally disyllabic, and if disyllabic, neither syllable may contain a complex onset (*Complex), and the first syllable is always open (No-Coda)." In other words, (1) full reduplication may apply either to monosyllables or to disyllables, but never to longer bases, (2) it may apply to monosyllables with an initial consonant cluster, but never to longer words in which any syllable has a complex onset, and (3) the reduplicated element invariably omits a consonant coda. In the majority of cases, full reduplications signal repetitive or continuative aspect in the verb and intensity in adjectives. Examples include: BASE REDUPLICATED FORM capu ma-capu-capu 'sweep/will sweep and sweep' puzi ma-puzi-puzi 'white/very white' tup kan tu-tup 'follow/follow persistently' canit c-m-ani-canit 'cry/cry often' dauk shi-dau-dauk 'stop/keep still' cpiq cpi-cpiq 'thresh/thresh repeatedly' braq kum-bra-braq 'hole/peck open, as a shell' fanuz fanu-fanuz 'wake up...

This study explores the YouTube comments of the NSCN (I-M) General Secretary Th. Muivah’s interview for The Wire. The Naga people are an ethnic group living in northeast India and parts of Myanmar, with a population of about 3–4 million experiencing protracted political turmoil. YouTube, as a “politicized space,” has a transnational reach, and analyzing the comments of this rare interview will help understand public sentiments and detect contemporary themes in the Naga political struggle. A sentiment analysis of 6,745 YouTube comments and a qualitative analysis of 100 randomly generated comments linked to the core topic “Naga” are conducted. The study reveals mostly positive sentiments that attempt to dispel negative perceptions about Th. Muivah and the Naga people and calls for Naga unification and solidarity. Negative sentiments include hatred, divisiveness, territorial disputes, and the anti-nationalist label. Six key themes identified in the comments are conflict resolution, intra-Naga conflict, solidarity, belonging, leadership, and resilience. Imagined ties among Naga people are built around the Naga homeland (Nagalim) and their distinction (Nagaism). YouTube acts as an “integrating space” for the Nagas to amplify their voices and political aspirations and a “go-to place” for mobilization while also fostering the rise of digital tribalism.

This research aims at describing the types and functions of verb reduplication in Muna language. Problems of the research are: (1) what types of verb reduplication in Muna language? (2) what are the functions of reduplication found on verb in Muna language? Data of the research were taken by using the techniques of noting, translation, introspection, and elicitation. The achieved data were analyzed by following the steps: (1) made the classification, (2) determine the basic element (stem) of every reduplication, (3) pay attention to the process of reduplication, (4) and determine the function of reduplication occur on verbs. Results of the research are as follows:There are three types of verb reduplication in Muna language, namely: full, partial, and affixed reduplications. Partial reduplication of verb in Muna language consists of regressive and progressive reduplications. In affixed reduplicaton, the kinds of affixes role in the reduplication process are: suffix –I which presents in the forms of suffix –pi, -ni, -li, and –mi; prefix sa-; and confix po-li. Full reduplication on verb in Muna language functions to state repeatitive activity and relax condition or activity done to relax. On the other hand, partial reduplication in the form of regressive reduplication functions to state repeatitive and serious activities, whereas the progressive one states reciprocal activity done by people in group. The last one, affixed reduplication that attached by suffix -pi, -li, and –mi states repeatitive and suffix –ni states an activity done seriously. Reduplication with prefix sa- states frequentive activity and the reduplication attached by confix po-li that states reciprocality and repeatitive activity. Key Words: Reduplication, Verb, Affix, Morphological Process, And Muna Language

The eight Western Kho-Bwa varieties are spoken in western Arunachal Pradesh in Northeast India and form a small, coherent sub-group of the Tibeto-Burman (Trans-Himalayan / Sino-Tibetan) language family.This paper presents 96 sound correspondences, mainly between the two Western Kho-Bwa varieties Duhumbi and Khoitam, with additional evidence from other Western Kho-Bwa varieties and other Tibeto-Burman languages whenever deemed illustrative. On basis of these sound correspondences, I propose 282 Western Kho-Bwa proto-forms including a total of 92 onsets. The less common reconstructed Western Kho-Bwa onsets are the uvular onsets and the voiceless nasal and approximant onsets.A unique innovation of the Western Kho-Bwa languages, and indeed the Kho-Bwa languages in general, is the correspondence of initial *s- in other Tibeto-Burman languages to a vocal onset in Proto-Western Kho-Bwa and its descendent varieties. Another relatively unique innovation is the correspondence between Western Kho-Bwa obstruent onsets *b- and *g- ~ *kʰ- ~ *k- and other Tibeto-Burman nasal onsets *m- and *ŋ-, respectively.

It is a common phenomenon that many rural populations work in Malaysia well known as Indonesian Labors (TKI). Even, some of them have been working for 5 years without passport. Their long period serving as Malaysian TKI affects to the ungrammatical and interference usage of Indonesian language. This study focuses on the causes and interferences form of Malayan language towards the TKI’s Indonesian language performance in Sub-district of Sikur. This is descriptive and qualitative study. The data is collected by using recording and interview technique. Then, the recording data is transcribed into written form and is analyzed by using interactive analysis with the following steps: data collection, data reduction, data display, and conclusion. Based on the data analysis, it is concluded that the interferences occurred among the Malaysian TKI populations are caused by interaction, habitual use of Malayan language for communication and their long period serving as TKI. In addition, forms of language interferences of the Malaysian TKI are phonological interference which occurs through shift of vowel phoneme, shift of consonant phoneme, and articulation of vowel and consonant phoneme. Beside that, morphological interference also occurs through prefix di-, clitics –nya, preposition di, full reduplication and partial reduplication. Finally, syntactic interference occurs in term of function, category and role.

Languages belonging to different language families tend to share features of each other when they exist contiguously for a prolonged period of time. South Asian subcontinent is one of the examples in which different language families, due to geographical proximity, have been in intense contact for millennia resulting in language convergence. The present entry draws upon the linguistically diverse underrepresented area of Northeast India to carve out a language contact situation in a miniature form where varied groups of Tibeto-Burman languages exist in close proximity. Northeast India is an enclave of a huge Tibeto-Burman population along with a larger number of Indo-Aryan language speakers. These Tibeto-Burman languages, due to constant contact with the Indo-Aryan languages, have acquired certain Indo-Aryan patterns in their indigenous grammatical system. This entry observes the natural phenomenon of contact-induced changes in the Tibeto-Burman languages of Northeast India substantiating with instances of some clausal patterns such as relative clauses, case marking, anaphors, etc. in these languages.

The morphological processes of reduplication in Oromo involve copying a root or a stem, entirely or partially. The latter requires replication of a prosodic CVC template from the left side of the base. The process may require adapting the onset of the adjacent syllable as a coda of the prosodic template. The copied portion, reduplicant, of a root or a stem is prefixed to the latter. However, if the base consists of a geminate or a cluster, the prefixing of the copied reduplicant would be constrained to a CV by a dissimilation rule. In a total reduplication, as in partial reduplication, the copied root or stem is placed to the left of its base. The word classes amenable to total reduplication are nouns, determiners, numerals, adverbs and adpositions, while those agreeable to partial reduplication are adjectives and verbs. Functionally, reduplicated nouns assume a predicative role and adpositions an adverbial role. The reduplicative forms of the other word classes are limited to their respective canonical functions, essentially with the sense of augmentation in terms of quantity, frequency or intensity.

Differential association of KIR gene loci to risk of malaria in ethnic groups of Assam, Northeast India

[Extended abstract] This is the first detailed description of Murui (Bue variety of ‘Witoto’), a hitherto little-documented Witotoan language spoken by about 2,000 people in the Colombian and Peruvian areas of the Amazon Basin. The thesis is written following the latest theoretical requirements of modern descriptive linguistics (Dixon’s Basic Linguistic Theory). It uses extensive immersion fieldwork and participant observation as methodological techniques in the best tradition of descriptive linguistic work. Collected during several fieldtrips to the Murui communities located between the Putumayo and Caqueta rivers in Colombia (El Encanto, Tercera India, San Rafael, and San Jose) between 2013 and 2016, the linguistic data consists of an extensive corpus of texts in a variety of genres (including songs, folk tales, myths, life story narratives, narratives of traditional customs and practices, and everyday conversations), as well as field notes. In addition to the language description and analysis, the grammar also draws attention to the typological features of Murui, and sheds new light on the linguistic variation among the Witotoan languages. It is a valuable resource for further research on the linguistic affiliation of the Witotoan language family in South America. The grammar presents analyses of the phonology, morphology and syntax of the Murui language. The thesis is divided into 13 robust chapters covering specific relevant topics. These chapters are: (1) The Murui language and its speakers (sociolinguistic and genealogical information, overview of earlier work), (2) Phonology (a detailed treatment of the Murui sound system with all its complexity), (3) Word classes (an overview of open and closed word classes and their main characteristics), (4) Noun structure and classifiers (shows the central role of classifiers and repeaters in the structure of nouns and of the language in general), (5) Possession and number (on possessive constructions and the ability of nouns to be possessed), (6) Grammatical relations (the central topic in every language description), (7) Predicate structure, non-spatial, and spatial setting (a detailed presentation of predicate structure and the main categories in verbal morphology: tense, aspect, modality, evidentiality, and spatial distinctions), (8) Valency-changing mechanisms (the verbal derivational categories passive, causative, reflexive and reciprocal), (9) Adjectives and comparative constructions (on adjectives and strategies of comparison), (10) Negation (types of negation, clausal and non-clausal), (11) Commands and questions (imperatives and command strategies, types of questions), (12) Sentence types and clause linking (the structure of complex sentences, types of independent clauses), (13) Discourse organization (clause linkage, structure of narratives, focus, the influence of Spanish). Additionally, there is an elaborate list of relevant literature references, and a sample of five fully analysed illustrative texts with glosses and translation, including the origin story of the Murui people.

التغير الحرکي وأثره في تغير الدلالة المعجمية دراسة في کتاب (أدب الکاتب) لابن قتيبة الدينوري (ت: 276هـ) السيد عبد الحليم مصطفى عبد العال الشوربجي قسم أصول اللغة. کلية البنات الأزهرية بطيبة. الأقصر. جامعة الأزهر البريد الالکتروني alsayed71@azhar.edu.eg الملخص: تؤدي الحرکات دورا مهما في الوظائف الصرفية والنحوية، ولا خلاف في ذلک بين علماء اللغة قديما وحديثا، وهذه الوظائف تؤدي إلى إحداث دلالات مختلفة؛ نظرا للتغير الحرکي الذي يحدث في الصيغة الصرفية، أو النحوية. ولکن هل تؤدي هذه الحرکات معنى معجميا؟ هذا هو الذي يختلف حوله اللغويون؛ فلم ينصوا صراحة على إمکانية قيام الحرکات بالوظيفة المعجمية. وبالرغم من أن اللغويين لم يعالجوا هذا الأمر على مستوى التنظير، فإن کثيرا منهم أوردوا هذه الألفاظ التي تختلف دلالتها رغم اتفاقها في الصوامت، ويرجع اختلاف الدلالة فيها إلى اختلاف الحرکات. ويهدف البحث إلى استجلاء دور الحرکات في البناء المعجمي، وأدائها وظيفة معجمية بجانب الصوامت، إضافة إلى وظيفتها الصرفية والنحوية، وذلک من خلال کتاب أدب الکاتب لابن قتيبة، وهو کتاب صنعه صاحبه لتقويم لغة الکتاب، وضبط کتاباتهم ولسانهم. وقد اعتمد البحث المنهج الوصفي التحليلي؛ ليبين الدور الذي تؤديه الحرکة في البناء المعجمي، وأثرها في تغير الدلالة من کلمة إلى أخرى. معتمدا مادته اللغوية من کتاب أدب الکاتب لابن قتيبة. ومن أهم النتائج التي توصل إليها البحث: أولا: معالجة ابن قتيبة المواد التي تؤدي فيها الحرکة دورا في المعنى المعجمي- في بابين من أبواب کتابه: ففي الباب الأول أورد (ثمانين بناء)، وفي الباب الثاني (ثمانية وعشرين بناء)، مع نظائرهم التي تختلف معهم في المعنى، تبعا لاختلاف الحرکة فيهما. ثانيا: لم ينفرد ابن قتيبة بذلک، بل عالجت کتب اللغة والمعاجم اللغوية المختلفة هذه المواد اللغوية مع معانيها المختلفة، تبعا لاختلاف الحرکة فيها، بالرغم من اتفاقها في الصوامت. الکلمات المفتاحية: التغير الحرکي- الدلالة المعجمية- أدب الکاتب- المعنى المعجمي- الصوائت والصوامت. Short Vowel Changes and Their Effect on Lexical Connotation A study on ‘adab al-kātib’ (“Writers’ Guide”) by Ibn Qutaybah al-Dīnawarī (died 276 A.H) As-Sayed Abdul Halim Mustafa Abdel Aal Al-Shorjbi Department of the science of Language. Al-Azhar Girls College, Thebes. Luxor, Al-Azhar University. Email: alsayed71@azhar.edu.eg Abstract: Ancient and modern scholars agree that short vowels perform important grammatical and morphological functions. These functions lead to different connotations due to short vowel changes in the morphological or grammatical form. Do these short vowels lead to lexical meaning? This is the point over which linguists disagree. They have not stated explicitly that short vowels are able to perform lexical functions. Although linguists have not dealt with this point from the theoretical perspective, many of them have listed lexical items which have the same consonants but with different meanings. The reason behind the difference of meaning is that they have different short vowels. The present study aims at clarifying the role of short vowels in lexical formation as well as the grammatical and morphological functions of short vowels. This is done through the book entitled ‘adab al-kātib’ (“Writers’ Guide”) by Ibn Qutaybah. The book aims at correcting the language of writers and regulating their writings and style.The present study adopts a descriptive analytical approach to show the role short vowels play in lexical formation and their effect on changing meaning. Terms and examples are drawn from the book entitled ‘adab al-kātib’ (“Writers’ Guide”) by Ibn Qutaybah.Most important conclusions of the study include the following: First: Ibn Qutaybah investigates the lexical items in which short vowels play a role in changing their meaning in two chapters in his book. In the first chapter, Ibn Qutaybah lists 80 lexical items in the first chapter and 28 in the second chapter along with their similar forms which have the same consonants but have different meanings due to the different short vowels. Second: Ibn Qutaybah have not dealt with this topic exclusively; rather, language books and different lexicons have examined these lexical items along with their different meanings despite of having the same consonants. Keywords: short vowel changes, lexical connotation , ‘adab al-kātib’ (“Writers’ Guide”), lexical meaning, consonants and vowels.

In Shillong, the capital of the northeastern Indian state of Meghalaya, Indo‐Aryan languages from the plains meet the Tibeto‐Burman and Austro‐Asiatic minority languages of the hills, and the result is a degree of multilingualism that is high even by Indian standards. English is widely used by academic groups everywhere in India, but structured interviews with all 17 faculty members of two departments at North‐Eastern Hill University in Shillong reveal special reasons why some parents now choose to use English with their children rather than their own mother tongue. Caste imposes fewer barriers in this part of India than elsewhere, and marriages across ethnic groups are common, but con ?icting kinship practices can bring complications. If a woman from a matrilineal group marries a man from a patrilineal group, both families will, according to their traditions, consider the children to belong to their kinship group. Using English with their children, rather than choosing the language of just one set of grand‐parents, can be a way of avoiding potential con?ict. Thus, in addition to the use of English in higher education, increasing geographic mobility, and the general prestige of English, the con?icting demands of different kinship systems needs to be considered among the factors contributing to the spread of English at the cost of local languages in Northeast India.

Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch rapidly between different responses sets. It is further sub divided into set shifting and cognitive shifting. While set shifting is considered to be automatic, cognitive shifting is considered to be conscious and strategic. Cognitive shifting can be assessed through a variety of linguistic and non-linguistic tasks. The non-linguistic tasks include stroop task, non-zero task etc. The alternating fluency task is a linguistic task, built in the same lines of generative naming. The only difference is that the participant has to rapidly alternate between two lexical categories in other words has to name a lexical item from first lexical category and then name a lexical item from the other lexical category. Response inhibition is the other executive function required for performing the alternating fluency task, as it would require the participants to inhibit the response belonging to the other lexical category. The current study was taken up with the aim of comparing cognitive shifting abilities in individuals with MCI and older individuals by employing alternating fluency task. Four lexical category combinations (animals-vehicles; birds-common objects; fruits-vegetables, colours and body parts) were considered and the task of participant was to name a lexical category from each combination (at once) within a period of 2 minutes. Each correct response was given a score of 1 when the participant could produce responses from both lexical categories given. 0 was given for partial and incorrect responses. Older participants performed better compared to participants with MCI. Individuals with MCI performed poorly as the cognitive flexibility and response inhibition are found to be compromised in these individuals.

This is a typological study of the why-interrogative expressions in Tibeto-Burman languages, or the non-Chinese Sino-Tibetan languages, in Sichuan, southwest China. After examining 22 languages/dialects, the interrogative category of reason is grouped into three types, viz. the distinct why-type, the how-type, and the what-type, according to the interrogative categories from which they are derived. It is discovered that the what-type is the dominant strategy for languages in Sichuan to derive the reason category. It is also common for Tibeto-Burman languages to use verbal interrogatives, namely interrogative verb phrases and interrogative words with verbal origins, dominantly in the sense of ‘to do what’ and ‘to become what’, to ask for reason. After a focused investigation of the verbal interrogatives, it is found that Tibeto-Burman languages in Sichuan distinguish purpose from cause via word/phrase distinction, sentential positions and semantic differences. A path of grammaticalization of the verbal interrogatives is thus proposed and analyzed. Finally, the derivation maps of interrogatives in Cysouw (2005) and Hölzl (2018) are complemented with a refined distinction between purpose and cause.

This book provides a representative survey of early and more recent concerns in cognitively inspired lexical semantics. As such, it focuses on the issue of polysemy vs. monosemy, it offers fresh perspectives on prototypicality in lexical categories, it sheds light on the development of lexical items in child language acquisition and in diachrony, and it looks at issues going beyond the individual lexical item (onomasiology, synonymy, the relationship between lexical and syntactic meaning).

Intonation in the grammar of Turkish