Thao Triplication

This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of reduplication in Khiamniungan, a Sino-Tibetan language spoken in Northeast India and parts of Myanmar. Reduplication in Khiamniungan is common across worrd classes. The study identifies and categorizes four primary reduplicative strategies: (1) echo formations, where partial reduplication creates semantically modified words; (2) compounding reduplication, in which morphologically independent stems combine to form new lexical items; (3) full reduplication, used for emphasis, pluralization, quantification, and manner marking; and (4) expressive reduplication, which encodes sensory and onomatopoeic meanings. The paper highlights the syntactic and semantic functions of reduplicated forms, illustrating their role in quantification, habitual aspect marking, imperative constructions, and intensification. While complete reduplication is pervasive across word classes, partial reduplication and echo formations are comparatively less common but still attested. Additionally, Khiamniungan exhibits a robust system of expressive reduplication that encodes sensory perception, aligning with patterns observed in other Tibeto-Burman languages. This study contributes to the broader understanding of reduplication in the Patkaian (Northern Naga) linguistic subgroup and sheds light on typological features relevant to Tibeto-Burman languages as a whole.

Word classes (‘parts-of-speech’, ‘syntactic categories’, ‘lexical categories’) are the fundamental building blocks of linguistic expressions in all natural human languages. They have been investigated since antiquity and continue to play a central role in modern linguistics. Today an increasingly important role is assigned to the information that is specified in the lexical entry of a word in the lexicon (including, of course, information about its category membership), both in formal and in functional approaches to grammar. Furthermore, there is a growing awareness that the traditional set of word classes is biased towards the better studied European languages and needs to be revised to accommodate unfamiliar word classes in nonEuropean languages.

This chapter provides a linguistic typology of about 70 Austronesian languages spoken in northern Philippines; these languages have been subgrouped into Bashiic, Northern Luzon, and Central Luzon. The chapter is organized into six sections: (i) the language scene; (2) phonology; (3) morphological profile; (4) reduplication; (5) syntax; (6) conclusion. The discussion of phonology covers vowel and consonant inventories, suprasegmental, syllable structure, phonotactics, and widespread phonological processes. These processes include vowel syncope, vowel raising, voiced stop allophony, palatalization, homorganic stopping and assibilation, gemination and degemination, lateral allophony, and lenition. In terms of morphological profile, northern Philippine languages can be characterized as synthetic-agglutinative in that they make a robust use of affixation in word building and morpheme boundaries are usually clear. However, morphemes do not always exhibit ‘one form-one meaning/function’. Moreover, reduplication is very pervasive in northern Philippine languages. Nine patterns of reduplication are observed in these languages, including Ca- reduplication, CV- reduplication, C 1 V 1 C 1 - reduplication, Caw- reduplication, C 1 V 1 C 2 -reduplication, CVː- reduplication, C 1 V 1 C 2 V 2 – reduplication, full reduplication, and lexicalized reduplication. The discussion of syntax covers word order, noun phrases and noun phrase marking systems, verbal clause structure, multipredicate constructions, compound sentences, and complex sentences. The conclusion section summaries unique typological features that distinguish northern Philippine languages from other Philippine languages and other Malayo-Polynesian languages.

Reduplicative words like chiffchaff or helter-skelter are part of ordinary language use yet most often found in substandard registers in which attitudinal and expressive meaning components are iconically foregrounded. In a rating experiment using nonwords that either conform to, or deviate from, conventional reduplicative patterns in German, the present study identified affective meaning dimensions, judgments of familiarity and esthetic evaluations of sound qualities associated with such words. In a subsequent recall test, we examined the respective mnemonic potential of the different types of reduplication. Results suggest that, in the absence of semantic content, reduplicative forms are inherently associated with several affective meaning associations that are generally considered positive. Two types of reduplicative patterns, namely full reduplication and [i-a]-vowel-alternating reduplication, boost these positive effects to a particularly pronounced degree, leading to an increase in perceived euphony, funniness, familiarity, appreciation, and positive belittling (cuteness) and, at the same time, a decrease in arousal. These two types also turn out to be particularly memorable when compared both to other types of reduplication and to non-reduplicative structures. This study demonstrates that reduplicative morphology may in and of itself, that is, irrespective of the phonemic and the semantic content, contribute to the affective meaning and esthetic evaluation of words.

Previous studies on nominalization in Tiv language focus on nominal compounds where compound words which belong to the grammatical category of nouns are derived through the process of compounding. This paper analyses the nominalization processes (strategies) in the Tiv language. The paper seeks to determine the nominalization processes in the Tiv language, and the classes of words as well as the linguistic units that are nominalized in Tiv. The study adopted the survey method in investigating the facts about the nominalization process in the language. The study used primary sources of data collection. The primary data were sourced through interview. Structured interview questions were used to elicit the needed data on nominalization from the ten selected adult Tiv native speakers in Makurdi and Gboko in Benue State. A total number of eighty (80) data were gathered and analysed. The theory adopted in the paper is Hockett’s (1954) structural theory modified in (2004) whose models are the Item-and-Process (I.P) and Item-and-Arrangement (I.A). The study found out that the processes through which nominalization occurs in the Tiv language are prefixation, prefixation plus some modifications, tonality and desententialization (sentence deconstruction). These processes are discovered to be very productive in nominalization in Tiv. It has also been found out that verbs roots and adjectives are the classes of words that are nominalized (lexical nominalization) in the Tiv language together with sentences (syntactic nominalization). The paper concludes that nominalization is very essential in word creation and helps in enriching the Tiv language.

The present paper, in its essential parts, dates from as early as 1978. It represents the first of a series of studies show how the ingenious Edward Sapir, concerning the much disputed Na-Dene hypothesis, not only correctly classified Tlingit— which now implicitly is accepted even by his critics – but also leaded the right way in the much more complicated case of Haida. On the other hand, the crushing criticism chiefly by R. Levine on Sapir, Hymes, and Pinnow, reveals itself be substantially as well as methodically vastly wrong. Most of the etymologies given by Sapir and/or Pinnow are defensable, new ones could be added. Ostensible separating features can no longer be regarded as such, e. g., s- and l - as first members in initial consonant clusters — according Krauss and Levine they are not even fossilized prefixes — can clearly be isolated as prefixes (comparable with Tlingit s-, c-, l etc.) in a great number of items, e. g. HS q'a harpoon, HK sq'a= stick, e t c . , HK lq'a= many-pointed object (PA *q'a' arrow); HS gal night, lgal black; HK gay blood, sgit to be red, HM geed to be ashamed etc. — The morphology of the noun, principle concern of the present paper, shows many parallels Tlingit-Eyak-Athapaskan. The much more evidential morphology of the verb, together with numerous new etymologies, shall be published at a later date (Das Haida als Na-Dene-Sprache, Komparative Untersuchung uber das Verbum, Ms, 300 pp.). Thus, in the light of these new materials, fundamental elements of Haida in phonemics, morphology and vocabulary prove themselves be genetically related Tlingit-Eyak-Athapaskan.

This study aims to acknowledge what kind of word formation used in political articles of the Jakarta Post newspaper. The study is a descriptive qualitative research which used documentation method. The object of the study was to find out the word formation used and mostly used in political article which contains political words of the Jakarta Post newspaper. The articles chosen based on their political topics and the most frequency political discussion. The result of the study shows that, 95 political words were found in political articles of the Jakarta Post newspaper. Seventy five words were analysed and classified by word formation processes due to their own word classes, and other 20 words were not classified as word formation processes as the theories of the study. The kind of word formation in the political words were 48 derivation words, 11 words of compounds, and 14 words were the shortening.

The aristocratic names in South Nias differ from the proper names generally. Instead, it used common nouns to describe name bearers, which are influenced by the language, social, and cultural factors of South Nias. This research was conducted in Öri Maniamölö, South Nias, focusing on four sample villages as members of a group of villages in Öri Maniamölö: Bawömataluo, Hilinawaö Fau, Botohilitanö, and Hilisimaetanö villages. The results of the analysis revealed that aristocratic names in South Nias have meanings categorized into social stratification, natural aspects, instruments and tools, specific names, and human activity. Additionally, there were four functions of aristocratic names in South Nias: as the identifier of someone’s greatness and majesty, as the authority sign of the name bearer, as an identifier of family ancestry, and as the representative of the name bearer’s characteristics. Linguistically, there are four morphological processes in word formation in the data obtained, namely: 1) Prefixation which consisted of {sa-}, {s(i)-}, {so-}, {na-}, {ni-}, {da-}, {fa-}, {ma-}, {mo-}, {me-},{i-}, {te-}/{to-}. Then, 2) Circumfix, which consists of one data, namely {a-ta}, with the role of changing verbs into nouns. Next, 3) Suffixation, which consists of the suffix {-ma}, which functions as a nominalizer. The last process is 4) Reduplication that occurs in the words ‘Daro-daro’ by repeating the same word and still in the same word class as noun.

Machine learning techniques have long been the foundations of speech processing. Bayesian classiflcation, decision trees, unsupervised clustering, the EM algorithm, maximum entropy, etc. are all part of existing speech recognition systems. The success of statistical speech recognition has led to the rise of statistical and empirical methods in natural language processing. Indeed, many of the machine learning techniques used in language processing, from statistical part-of-speech tagging to the noisy channel model for machine translation have roots in work conducted in the speech fleld. However, advances in learning theory and algorithmic machine learning approaches in recent years have led to signiflcant changes in the direction and emphasis of the statistical and learning centered research in natural language processing and made a mark on natural language and speech processing. Approaches such as memory based learning, a range of linear classiflers such as Boosting, SVMs and SNoW and others have been successfully applied to a broad range of natural language problems, and these now inspire new research in speech retrieval and recognition. We have seen an increasingly close collaboration between voice and language processing researchers in some of the shared tasks such as spontaneous speech recognition and understanding, voice data information extraction, and machine translation. The purpose of this special issue was to invite speech and language researchers to communicate with each other, and with the machine learning community on the latest machine learning advances in their work. The call for papers was met with great enthusiasm from the speech and natural language community. Thirty six submissions were received; each paper was reviewed by at least three reviewers. Only ten papers were selected re∞ecting not only some of the best work on machine learning in the areas of natural language and spoken language processing but also what we view as a collection of papers that represent current trends in these areas of research both from the perspective of

A dicalect represents a regional variation of a language, distinguished by unique phonetic features, vocabulary, and grammatical structures. The Mie dialect, a branch of the Kansai dialect group classified under Nishi Nihon Hogen (Western Japanese dialects), embodies these regional linguistic characteristics. This study investigates the representation of the Mie dialect in the Japanese anime series Yatogame-chan Kansatsu Nikki, focusing on two linguistic aspects: word classes and word formation processes. Employing a descriptive qualitative approach, the study utilizes Tomita’s classification of word classes and Palter and Slotsve’s theory on Kansai dialect word formation to analyze the data. This study identifies 30 examples of Mie dialect usage across the series, with sentence-final particles (shujoshi) emerging as the most frequest category. In terms of word formation, the most common process involves complete transformation from standard Japanese vocabulary. The findings highlight how popular media portrays regional dialects and contribute to broader discussion on linguistic diversity and regional identity in contemporary Japan. This study underscores the importance of analyzing dialect representation in media to understand how regional linguistic features are maintained, adapted, or transformed within popular culture.

Phonetic environment has proven to be one of the most important factors affecting non-native English speakers’ perception of American English /r/ and /l/ [e.g., Lively et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 96, 2076–2087 (1994)]. In the present study native Japanese speakers’ lexical confusion of English /r/ and /l/ are examined through a word translation experiment which employed pairs of English words minimally contrasting /r/ and /l/ in various word positions. Results indicate that English words in which the /r/ or /l/ is located in a perceptually difficult to identify position (e.g., initial consonant cluster: ‘‘branch’’ versus ‘‘blanch’’) are more likely to be mistranslated than those in which the phoneme is located in an easy to identify position (e.g., final singleton: ‘‘compare’’ versus ‘‘compel’’). This finding suggests that errors in phoneme perception and lexical confusion might be related. Pedagogical implications for second language learning will be discussed with respect to results from both learning and retention experiments. [Work supported by TAO, Japan.]

In this study the effect of phonotactic constraints concerning word-initial consonant clusters in children with delayed phonological acquisition was explored. Twelve German-speaking children took part (mean age 5;1). The spontaneous speech of all children was characterized by the regular appearance of the error patterns fronting, e.g., Kuh“cow” /ku:/ →[tu:], or stopping, e.g., Schaf“sheep” /a:f/ →[ta:f], which were inappropriate for their chronological age. The children were asked to produce words (picture naming task, word repetition task) with initial consonant clusters, in which the application of the error patterns would violate phonotactic sequence constraints. For instance, if fronting would apply in /kl-/, e.g., Kleid“dress”, it would be realized as the phontactically illegal consonant cluster /tl-/. The results indicate that phonotactic constraints affect word production in children with delayed phonological developments. Surprisingly, we found that children with fronting produced the critical con...

Subjects were presented with single consonants, consonant-consonant pairs and consonant-vowel pairs, and asked to produce words beginning with these letters. Three presentation methods were used: visual tachistoscopic, acoustic with the letters " spelled ", and acoustic with the letters pronounced as they would be in a word. Latency measures revealed that the acoustic " spelling " condition took longer than the other two, and consonant-vowel took longer than consonant-consonant. These results are interpreted as supporting a conception of verbal memory in which initial consonant clusters are stored as integral units.

NLP technology becomes dominant in the field of Information Retrieval (IR) because it facilitates the retrieval of relevant information from different resources in particular natural language. Traditional IR systems treat each document as a bag-of-words and do not exploit any language related information. It is obvious that considering such information can improve the performance of various IR tasks. One of the crucial prerequisites to deal with these tasks is the knowledge about the role of the various word classes, also known as part-of-speech (POS). For that purpose, the research presented in this paper has used word classes as additional information about document and query terms and have evaluated the impact of such information in the process of passage retrieval from documents written in Macedonian language. As a supplement, the effect of word forms has also been analyzed. The findings indicate that word class information is only important if it is combined with the term frequency and inverse document frequency. Including word forms further improves system's accuracy.

Previous research on word class distribution claimed that 37% of word tokens are nouns, suggesting that there might exist a certain regularity of noun proportion among human languages. To explore this possibility, we examined the proportion of noun and four other word classes within British and American English, and across seven languages in terms of different word frequency band. Results indicated that the noun proportion is evidently about or larger than 37%, and meanwhile increases with word rarity. Among frequent words, nouns increase as minor word classes decrease, whereas among rare words, the noun proportion remains a stable level.