Regulating Uncharted Waters: The EU Platform Work Directive Between Uncertainty, Lobbyism and Politicisation

In this study, we examine the concept of decent work on local digital platforms in Serbia. So, this article focuses on the research topic of whether labour done on local digital platforms may be classified as "decent work." Labour digitization and the digital economy are novel phenomena that need in-depth examination. We begin with the concept of the digital economy as a basis for the development and expansion of digital labour. This new economy is characterised by knowledge and the use of various smart tools, as well as the crossing of national borders, and so on. Nowadays, we may talk about the gig economy, which is defined by short-term employment on online platforms or labour via mobile applications. These developments resulted in the establishment and growth of a worldwide digital labour market marked by non-standard forms of employment, insecure labour agreements, and the involvement of thirdparty intermediaries between employees and clients. There are considerable efforts to alter employment legislation throughout Europe. Co-regulation, which involves several players in the decision-making process, is one possible option. The Directive on Improving Working Conditions in Platform Work, which is now in the process of adoption, is perhaps the most important document at the EU level. It is worth mentioning the practices of the European Union's Court of Justice, national courts in Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, and Germany, as well as national regulations in both Italy and France that establish the right to disconnect. We must also acknowledge the work of international and national trade union federations, such as the European Trade Union Confederation. So, the most pressing issue in this study is finding decent work in the digital labour market. A decent work index comprises many indicators. With statistical and legal indicators, the International Labour Organisation discusses 10 core aspects of decent work. According to an early study, there is no decent work on digital platforms due to bogus self-employment, which occurs when certain entrepreneurs work for only one company. The reasons for this phenomenon are reduced expenses and employers' lack of accountability. This is also an aspect of digital labour in Serbia. To assess the gig economy in Serbia, we use the online labour index and the gigmeter. According to the online labour index, Serbia is among the top 15 nations in the world in terms of the number of digital employees, accounting for 1.4% of the global total. Software development is the most frequent occupation. According to the gigmeter, the most frequent employment is creative and multimedia. The most crucial duty is to figure out how many digital employees there are in Serbia. According to the most conservative estimate, Serbia has almost 90,000 digital employees. Almost two-thirds of digital employees in Serbia are in hidden employment. Now we can talk about doing decent work on digital platforms in Serbia. To assess decent work, we apply the Fair Work Principles. Fair pay, fair conditions, fair contracts, fair management, and fair representation re among these principles. Every platform can be scored with a basic and an extra point, for a total of 10 points. The study incorporates five platforms: Uradizaradi, Glovo, Wolt, Car: Go, and Mr.D. According to the Fairwork rating, Uradi-zaradi and Wolt met the most requirements but received just a passing grade. The Public Policy Centre performed extensive research on decent work to find that it does not exist on digital platforms. The most essential motivation for digital labour is a high wage, which comes at the price of a long working week. This study determined that neither platform satisfies the passing standard and makes some recommendations for improving working conditions on local platforms. First, the practice of bogus self-employment must be stopped. Second, labour legislation must be revised. Third, the right to collective bargaining must be extended to digital workers. This can be done by a strong trade union movement that can find a way to safeguard digital employees without jeopardising traditional workers' rights.

Platform work has become a growing, yet largely invisible, component of labor markets in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), offering income opportunities but also reinforcing precarity, informality, and exclusion especially for migrant and low-income workers. This article examines how national stakeholders in Poland and Slovakia respond to the Platform Work Directive of the European Union (EU), which aims at improving working conditions in the digital labor economy. Based on seventeen in-depth interviews with trade unions, government officials, platform representatives, and labor experts, the study uncovers deep ambivalence about the Directive’s potential to bring meaningful change in the working conditions of platform workers. While many see it as a long-overdue step toward formalizing rights and addressing bogus self-employment, others warn of merely formal transposition with weak enforcement and limited impact. Stakeholders highlight serious concerns about administrative capacity, lack of legal clarity, and the risk of undermining the flexibility that many workers, especially migrants, rely on. The findings point to a broader issue: in the absence of robust, pluralist interest representation and strong domestic labor institutions, national actors often receive EU regulation passively, treating it as an external obligation rather than a transformative opportunity. The Directive may elevate platform work on the policy agenda, yet it is unlikely, on its own, to alter the deeper structural inequalities and power asymmetries shaping platform work in CEE countries. The article argues for a more socially grounded approach to policy implementation, one that centers the lived realities and voices of workers at the margins.

The rapid development of digital technologies has led to the emergence of a platform economy, the functioning of which does not fit into the postulates of the classical theory of the firm. Digital platforms are based on the theory of two-way markets. Digital platforms mediate between different groups of users, simplifying and stimulating their interaction with each other. With the emergence of platforms, transaction costs associated with finding a business partner in the market and assessing the possibility of interacting with him tend to zero. The functioning of digital platforms makes it possible to realize the possibilities of sharing goods and services by users, allowing more optimal use of available resources. Digital platform organizers are constantly evolving the user interface in order to increase the level of interaction between stakeholders. There are a large number of digital platforms operating on the market today. These include: advertising platforms, platforms for the exchange of value (goods, services), social networks, gaming platforms, industrial platforms, etc. The article presents the results provided when studying the dynamics of the Digital Economy based on platforms and Internet technologies. The advantages of using Digital Economy platforms, created to provide sellers and consumers with an interface for high-tech market interaction, are presented. The conditions and factors influencing the creation and development of platforms are analyzed, e.g. the Internet, mobile technologies, mobile devices, social networks that promote rational consumer behaviour in the process of market transactions. The opportunity to provide the parties of market interactions with a high-tech interface for transmitting digital content at zero transaction costs was presented by the authors as a key characteristic of modern platforms, as a basis for the transition from bilateral markets to a shared consumption economy.

The Continuous Importance of the Swiss Case for Europeanization Research

The COVID-19 pandemic hit the Russian economy very hard, influenced the forms of labour use and work modes, and required the adoption of fundamentally new managerial decisions in the world of work. We believe that we can talk about social and labour relations in the era of the coronavirus, as well as the lessons to be learned for the future. The relevance of the study of the dynamics and quality of platform employment during the COVID-19 pandemic is due to the poor knowledge, relative novelty, and massiveness of the noted form of employment relations, implemented using digital platforms. The article analyzes the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated economic and social consequences on platform employment in Russia as a whole and on its individual segments. Digital labour platforms are digital networks that algorithmically coordinate labour service transactions. Working on the platform is a new form of work, and it is constantly evolving. The coronavirus pandemic has affected different areas of platform employment in different ways, and this impact is due to the specifics of these areas, the amount of government support, the degree, and speed of adjustment (flexibility) of platform employment in an evolving situation. The article examines the general dynamics of this type of employment, analyzes new trends in industry dynamics, volumes, types, forms, and specifics of platform employment, including the provision of services by self-employed, taxi and car-sharing services on digital labour platforms, as well as activities on electronic digital trading platforms. Recommendations are offered, including government agencies, trade unions, and employers. The problem areas requiring further research have been identified

The spread of digital labour platforms has sparked discussions about the future of work in the digital space. Improving working conditions for platform workers has become a central issue in recent research. This study aimed to examine how platform workers’ attitudes towards social security and job satisfaction vary by age and social status. Additionally, it reviewed previous research on platform working conditions and remuneration. The survey, conducted between 13 November 2023 and 20 May 2024, collected 437 responses on working conditions on digital platforms in Lithuania. The research methods included systematic and comparative literature analysis, as well as statistical data analysis using the Scheirer-Ray-Hare test and variance analysis. The results showed that attitudes towards platform work vary by age and social status. Platform workers aged 18-24 in Lithuania identified lower commuting, lunch, and rental costs as key advantages of platform work. Platform workers aged 34-55 were primarily concerned about the lack of paid breaks and holidays on digital platforms. Freelancers and students were concerned about irregular working hours, fluctuating workloads, and unpaid time spent searching for tasks. Parents prioritised flexibility and autonomy when working on platforms.

Trade unionism in western Europe is facing the growing challenge of the relocation of work to other parts of the world. This article focuses on the major banking trade unions in France and the UK. It discusses the unions' responses to globalisation in a sector where information technology has exposed firms to intense competitive pressures and has encouraged not just relocation but also business mergers and concentration combined with widespread outsourcing. The authors find that there is often a tension between the day-to-day defence of the workers and broader trade union aspirations to develop alternatives to the arbitrariness of an economic system where labour power is reduced to a commodity to be bought and sold. The article concludes that the dual purposes of union activity, the defence and improvement of workers' immediate working conditions, and the projection of alternative people-friendly forms of social and economic organisation, are being made more difficult by globalisation.

Background: India is experiencing substantial growth in the digital platform economy, where companies utilize online platforms, portals, and mobile applications to match workers with tasks. These platforms use algorithms to assign piece-rate jobs to workers who are denoted as independent partners/contractors. Platforms which mediate work through digital means include Zomato, Uber, Zepto etc. The digital economy, which saw a substantial surge after the COVID-19 pandemic, encompasses the platform economy as one of its key components. Aims: The article aims to provide a concise overview of the location-based platform economy in India and explain its impact on the lives of workers in this work arrangement. Methodology: The researchers conducted a comprehensive narrative review, drawing insights from peer-reviewed articles, government reports, and their own field research in Kochi, Kerala and Bangalore, Karnataka. Results: Results include a detailed table depicting key details of major platform aggregators in India and two case studies that shed light on digital platform workers' motivations, challenges and incentives. Conclusion: Extensive conceptual and empirical research across various social science disciplines is essential for effectively comprehending and regulating the platform economy. Given the profound impact of the platform economy, it is crucial to ground policy and regulation in rigorous social science research. This will benefit all stakeholders in the platform economy, including platform aggregators, service providers (delivery partners, rider partners, etc.), government officials, and end customers, ensuring a fair and equitable environment for all.

The article considers digital educational services market development on the basis of digital platforms. Research subject: financial market digitalization. Research purpose: to develop theoretical provisions of digital educational services. Research methods. In the course of the research such methods as analysis, grouping, comparison, and synthesis have been used. Results: 1. A specific approach to the categories of “digital educational platform” and “digital educational ecosystem (ecosystem-based higher education)” is proposed. 2. The classification criteria of digital platforms are systematized on various grounds and the “operation scale” criterion was added to the digital educational platforms classification. 3. The current market state is characterized and the latest innovations in the digital educational services are reviewed. 4. Risks of the platform-based and ecosystem-based higher education models development are revealed. Scientific novelty: the authors’ specific approaches to the categories of “digital educational platform” and “digital educational ecosystem (ecosystem-based higher education)” are proposed, digital platforms classification criteria are systematized on various grounds, and the “functioning scale” criterion was added to the digital educational platforms classification.

Improving working conditions is a concept of significance in the workplace, particularly in the public health setting. This is because working conditions in public hospitals have been described in literature as horrendous, and have a direct impact on the employees and patients’ health and safety outcomes. However, despite these poor working conditions, attempts to rectify the situation in public hospitals are directed to only a few aspects of working conditions such as salaries and long working hours instead of adopting a systematic approach which will target the multifaceted and interrelated aspects of working conditions. The poor working conditions in public hospitals and their effects on the health and safety of both employees and patients in health settings call for clarification of the concept “improving working conditions”. Clarification of the concept will clear the confusion regarding its meaning in healthcare settings, particularly in nursing. It will also assist healthcare workers, researchers and policymakers to direct their interventions on all issues that have an impact on working conditions. This paper explores the meaning of the concept of improving working conditions in the context of public hospitals.

The Macro Frames of Microwork: A Study of Indian Women Workers on AMT in the Post-Pandemic Moment

In the wake of rapid digitalization, the landscape of commerce has undergone a profound transformation, presenting unprecedented challenges to traditional tax systems and legal frameworks. This abstract examines the evolving dynamics of tax compliance within the digital economy through the lens of finance. The digital economy encompasses a broad spectrum of economic activities facilitated by digital technologies, including e-commerce, digital platforms, and virtual currencies. These innovations have blurred the boundaries of traditional tax jurisdictions, leading to complexities in determining tax liabilities and enforcement mechanisms. As such, the adequacy of existing legal frameworks in addressing tax challenges posed by the digital economy has come under scrutiny. From a finance perspective, ensuring tax compliance in the digital economy involves understanding the intricate interplay between technology, business models, and regulatory frameworks. Digital businesses often operate across multiple jurisdictions, exploiting loopholes and jurisdictional discrepancies to minimize tax obligations. Such practices have raised concerns regarding tax fairness and the erosion of tax bases, prompting policymakers to explore new regulatory approaches. One key aspect of addressing tax compliance in the digital economy is the development of international cooperation and coordination mechanisms. Given the transnational nature of digital transactions, effective tax enforcement requires collaboration among countries to combat tax evasion and profit shifting. Initiatives such as the Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) project by the OECD seek to establish common standards and guidelines for taxing digital businesses. Moreover, the emergence of innovative technologies, such as blockchain and artificial intelligence, presents both opportunities and challenges for tax authorities. While these technologies offer potential solutions for enhancing tax administration and enforcement, they also introduce new complexities, such as the anonymity of transactions and the difficulty of tracking digital assets. Navigating the complexities of tax compliance in the digital economy requires a multifaceted approach that integrates legal, technological, and financial perspectives. By fostering international cooperation, leveraging technological innovations, and adapting regulatory frameworks, policymakers can mitigate tax challenges and promote a fair and sustainable tax system in the digital age.
 Keywords: Tax, Digital Economy, Finance, Legal, Review.

The article investigates the ways and means of improving and perfecting the state of labor protection at transport enterprises of Ukraine through the implementation of international standards for risk management and occupational safety. A detailed analysis of international standards for occupational safety, and their main benefits that improve the health and safety of enterprises. The object of research is international standards on occupational safety and risk management. The purpose of the work is to analyze the implementation and use of international standards on occupational safety and risk management at Ukrainian transport enterprises. Research methods - analytical. Quality management of labor protection at enterprises is one of the priority areas of transport enterprises in order to reduce occupational injuries and improve working conditions. In order to effectively manage labor protection in transport enterprises, the authors of the article propose the introduction of international standards in the field of occupational safety and risk management in Ukraine. Examining the chosen topic, it was found that in many works that devoted to the application of international standards on occupational safety was not a generalization of all regulations and standards on labor protection and risk management in the enterprise. The main directions for the implementation of international standards for occupational safety and risk management in transport enterprises of Ukraine are proposed. The results of research can be recommended for implementation in the management system of labor protection at transport enterprises of Ukraine. KEY WORDS: INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS, OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY, SAFE WORKING CONDITIONS, RISK ASSESSMENT, IMPROVING OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY CONDITIONS, MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.

The two largest changes that have affected international trade since the 1990s are the creation of the new digital economy and the development of global value chains (GVCs). Both are inherently connected to new information and communication technology (ICT), and both have seemingly increased trade inclusivity, benefitting the trade participation of micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) and developing countries. The interaction between the digital economy and GVCs is not well explored, however. Although the growth of both may have been in parallel, is there evidence that the digital platforms at the core of the digital economy affect GVC participation? This chapter examines the role of digital platforms, especially e-commerce marketplaces in the modern economy; the ways these platforms can increase economic inclusivity; and the development of GVCs and their effect on trade participation. The chapter also reviews the evidence on the link between digital platforms and GVC participation.

Digital economy is a vital driving force for countries to promote economic recovery, rebuild competitive advantages and enhance governance capacity. Extensive research has been conducted in this field. In this paper, the text analysis tool of Bicomb2.04 and the knowledge graph visualization tool of CiteSpace are applied to analyze the digital economy research from 1992 to 2022, and a total of 7874 articles retrieved from the SSCI and SCI of the WOS core database are collected as the research data. The analysis provides a comprehensive overview of the research status of the digital economy, including the distribution of literature, research institutions and regions, research funds and publications, research authors, and cooperation networks. The core progress and frontier of international research are further analyzed according to the evolution of hot keywords, core system clustering, and the hot emergent words frontier. The results show that (1) the academic circle has a good overall research trend on the digital economy, which can be divided into three steadily rising research stages. The researchers take digital innovation as the core and extend it to the application of digital innovation, which has made groundbreaking theoretical contributions, but has not yet formed a team with field influence. (2) The evolution of hot keywords can be divided into four stages. Through hot clustering analysis, a basic theoretical system is constructed with digital technology and innovation as the core and digital governance, digital application, and digital path as the means. (3) The analysis of frontier areas also identified the digital platform economy, big data technology innovation, digital economy statistics, and the gig economy as potential research directions for the future. This study provides a guide for researchers to promote further research on the digital economy and is of great significance for promoting digital development level and constructing global digital ecosystem.