Routing protocol for AUV communications: Report from field tests

Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWASNs) is an emerging technology, comprising of sensor nodes and unattended automated vehicles (AUVs), all working in a collaboration to sense various phenomenon, process digital information, store processed data and communicate among each other and base stations. Acoustic propagation in water is characterized by high and variable delays, fading effect, Doppler spread and multi path which in turn lead to a limited bandwidth and high error rates. Also, battery life and storage capacity of nodes is limited. So there is a need of suitable routing protocol that takes all these limitations into consideration and makes communication in underwater networks viable. This is the first attempt to analyze the performance of ad-hoc routing protocols in underwater acoustic network environment. We used performance metrics like packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay, throughput, routing overhead and energy consumption of the sensor nodes. AODV, DSDV, DSR and OLSR are compared for their performance at different traffic conditions, number of nodes and depths. By analyzing our simulation results, we found that among the discussed protocols, AODV may be used for denser networks but with less traffic and DSDV is suitable for higher traffic conditions with optimal number of nodes.

Due to miniaturization of hardware and availability of low-cost, low-power sensors, Wireless Sensor Network and Multimedia Sensor Network applications are increasing day by day. Each application has a specific quality of service and experience requirements. The design of routing and MAC protocol which can fulfill the requirements of the application is challenging given the constrained nature of these devices. Considerable efforts are directed towards the design of energy efficient QoS-aware routing protocols. In this article, we present state of the art review of routing protocols for Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks while addressing the challenges and providing insight into research issues.

Wireless Sensor Networks, referred to as WSNs, are made up of various types of sensor nodes. Recent developments in micro electro-mechanical technology have given rise to new integrated circuitry, microprocessor hardware and nano technology, wireless technology, and advanced networking routing protocols. Hospitals and health service facilities, the armed forces, and even residential customers represent a potential huge market for these devices. The problem is that existing sensor network nodes are incapable of providing the support needed to maximize usage of wireless technology. For this reason, there are many novel routing protocols for the wireless sensor networks proposed recently. One is Hierarchical or cluster-based routing. In this paper, we analyze three different types of hierarchical routing protocols: Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH), Power-Efficient Gathering in Sensor Information Systems (PEGASIS), and Virtual Grid Architecture (VGA). We tried to analyze the performance of these protocols, including the power consumption and overall network performance. We also compared the routing protocol together. This comparison reveals the important features that need to be taken into consideration while designing and evaluating new routing protocols for sensor networks. The simulation results, using same limited sensing range value, show that PEGASIS outperforms all other protocols while LEACH has better performance than VGA. Furthermore, the paper investigates the power consumption for all protocols. On the average, VGA has the worst power consumption when the sensing range is limited, while VGA is the best when the sensing range is increased. Using homogeneous nodes can greatly prolong sensor network’s life time. Also, The network lifetime increases as the number of clusters decreases

Delay Tolerant Networks enable data transmission in different applications, mainly in environments where communication infrastructure is missing. The existence of links is casual and even when links are created, they are short in time and unstable/unreliable in terms of connectivity. Thus, underwater network applications tend to be delay tolerant. In this paper, we propose a mobility-aware routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks. The protocol is based on Focused Beam Routing (FBR) protocol and considers nodes’ next destination location when making forwarding decisions. The routing protocol is called Destination-aware Focused Beam Routing (D-FBR) protocol and we compare its performance with FBR protocol for different FBR angles and different applications. We use Delivery Probability (DP), Average Number of Hops (ANH), Overhead Ratio (OR) and simulate our scenarios by The ONE simulator. Simulation results show that, for D-FBR protocol, when FBR angle is 30 ∘ , OR and ANH is improved by 34.5 % and 23.1 %, respectively, while DP is 6.5 % lower, compared to FBR protocol. Both D-FBR and FBR outperform Epidemic Routing Protocol.

<span lang="EN-US">Recent developments and widespread in wireless sensor network have led to many routing protocols, many of these protocols consider the efficiency of energy as the ultimate factor to maximize the WSN lifetime. The quality of Service (QoS) requirements for different applications of wireless sensor networks has posed additional challenges. Imaging and data transmission needs both QoS aware routing and energy to ensure the efficient use of sensors. In this paper, we propose an Efficient, Energy-Aware, Least Cost, (ECQSR) quality of service routing protocol for sensor networks which can run efficiently with best-effort traffic processing. The protocol aims to maximize the lifetime of the network out of balancing energy consumption across multiple nodes, by using the concept of service differentiation, finding lower cost by finding the shortest path using nearest neighbor algorithm (NN), also put certain constraints on the delay of the path for real-time data from where link cost that captures energy nodes reserve, energy of the transmission, error rate and other parameters. The results show that the proposed protocol improves the network lifetime and low power consumption.</span>

Interest in underwater acoustic networks has grown rapidly with the desire to monitor the large portion of the world covered by oceans. Fundamental differences between underwater acoustic propagation and terrestrial radio propagation may call for new criteria for the design of networking protocols. In this paper, we focus on some of these fundamental differences, including attenuation and noise, propagation delays, and the dependence of usable bandwidth and transmit power on distance (which has not been extensively considered before in protocol design studies). Furthermore, the relationship between the energy consumptions of acoustic modems in various modes (i.e., transmit, receive, and idle) is different than that of their terrestrial radio counterparts, which also impacts the design of energy-efficient protocols. The main contribution of this work is an in-depth analysis of the impacts of these unique relationships. We present insights that are useful in guiding both protocol design and network deployment. We design a class of energy-efficient routing protocols for underwater sensor networks based on the insights gained in our analysis. These protocols are tested in a number of relevant network scenarios, and shown to significantly outperform other commonly used routing strategies and to provide near optimal total path energy consumption. Finally, we implement in ns2 a detailed model of the underwater acoustic channel, and study the performance of routing choices when used with a simple MAC protocol and a realistic PHY model, with special regard to such issues as interference and medium access.

Recent advances in sensor technology and wireless communications have led to many new data dissemination routing protocols, especially designed for wireless sensor networks, where energy awareness is the most important consideration. The focus of this thesis is on the area of routing protocols for wireless sensor networks, especially for those applications where, the whole sensor field need to be taken under observation to detect available different types of moving objects. Besides the efficient use of limited energy, reliability is another important issue in sensor communication, where the network is susceptible to environmental factors. In this thesis, the design of a new energy-efficient data-centric routing protocol, named Reliable and Energy-Efficient Protocol (REEP), is proposed. We have used MATLAB 7.4 for our implementation. The performance of REEP has been compared with Directed Diffusion (DD) for the aforementioned sensor network application. Our simulations and experimental results show that REEP performs better than DD.

Throughout the use of the small battery-operated sensor nodes encourage us to develop an energy-efficient routing protocol for wireless sensor networks (WSNs). The development of an energy-efficient routing protocol is a mainly adopted technique to enhance the lifetime of WSN. Many routing protocols are available, but the issue is still alive. Clustering is one of the most important techniques in the existing routing protocols. In the clustering-based model, the important thing is the selection of the cluster heads. In this paper, we have proposed a scheme that uses the bubble sort algorithm for cluster head selection by considering the remaining energy and the distance of the nodes in each cluster. Initially, the bubble sort algorithm chose the two nodes with the maximum remaining energy in the cluster and chose a cluster head with a small distance. The proposed scheme performs hierarchal routing and direct routing with some energy thresholds. The simulation will be performed in MATLAB to justify its performance and results and compared with the ECHERP model to justify its performance. Moreover, the simulations will be performed in two scenarios, gateway-based and without gateway to achieve more energy-efficient results.

Wireless sensor networks are widely used in different fields. Because of its distinguished characteristics, we must take account of a factor of energy consumed when designing routing protocol. The routing protocols of the wireless sensor networks have mainly two types: flat routing protocol such as directed diffusion and SPIN, and hierarchical routing protocol such as LEACH and its variations. In this paper, we present a routing based on dynamic tree for solving LEACH problems of both scalability and uneven distribution of cluster-heads. The simulation proves that the algorithm is able to solve these problems.

The existing routing protocols for wireless sensor networks were not reasonable in design, which limited their application. Most of the existing studies did not take into account the energy consumption of the network and the balanced use of the energy of sensor nodes, which led to the unsatisfactory application effect of wireless sensor networks in some fields. Therefore, from the perspective of energy balance in wireless sensor networks, this paper proposed a construction method of an energy balance routing protocol in wireless sensor networks based on a fuzzy control strategy. Firstly, based on the analysis of the basic composition of wireless sensor networks and the structure of sensor nodes, this paper expounded the basic process of wireless data transmission and summarized the classification and characteristics of routing protocols in wireless sensor networks from different angles. Secondly, according to the node data transmission characteristics of wireless sensor networks, the energy balance use model of sensor nodes was established, and the design method of the energy balance routing protocol based on fuzzy control strategy was proposed, and the data transmission link was optimized. Finally, through experimental comparative analysis, the results showed that the energy balanced routing protocol proposed in this paper can effectively realize the energy balanced use of the network data transmission process. Compared with other common routing protocols, the wireless sensor network routing protocol proposed in this paper can not only improve the data transmission efficiency and reduce the data redundancy but also save energy consumption and prolong the network running time. The design method of routing protocol proposed in this paper will be conducive to the optimization and application of routing protocol in wireless sensor networks and provide a theoretical basis for the related research of wireless sensor networks.

QoSNET: An integrated QoS network for routing protocols in large scale wireless sensor networks

Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs) are significantly different from terrestrial sensor networks in the following aspects: low bandwidth, high latency, node mobility, high error probability, and 3-dimensional space. These new features bring many challenges to the network protocol design of UWSNs. The communication range of underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) is limited, and the nodes are equipped with limited power battery whose replacement is expensive due to underwater harsh environment. Moreover, the networks including small number of nodes have communication problems for long ranges. In this paper, we evaluate the performance of three classical location-based routing protocols (namely, VBF, HH-VBF, and VBVA) for underwater wireless sensor networks in terms of three critical performance metrics for dynamic network topology. Our comparison includes energy consumption, end-to-end delay, and packet delivery ratio.

The rapid expansion of Internet of Things (IoT) technologies has significantly increased the deployment of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in a wide array of applications, including smart cities and environmental monitoring. A major challenge in these networks is the development of energy-efficient routing protocols that extend network lifespan and ensure reliable data transmission. This paper examines the latest advancements in energy-efficient routing protocols for IoT-enabled WSNs, discussing their design principles, algorithmic foundations, and performance metrics. We introduce innovative routing strategies aimed at optimizing energy usage while maintaining strong communication links. Through comprehensive simulations and practical case studies, we validate the effectiveness of these protocols in improving energy efficiency and overall network performance. Our results offer crucial insights for the future development of IoT-WSN systems, highlighting the necessity of incorporating energy-awareness into routing protocol design. The paper concludes with suggestions for future research directions and practical applications to further enhance the field of energy-efficient IoT-enabled WSNs.

Energy is one of the most important factors in the design of routing protocols in wireless sensor networks. This paper first analyzes the energy consumption in typical clustering protocols and finds that the consumption is not evenly distributed among nodes. Thus some nodes die quickly with the reduction of the network lifetime. Then a new energy-balanced strategy is introduced in clustering protocols. The strategy assigns the head communication load to base station by detecting the energy consumption in the cluster heads. The evenly distributed energy among the nodes is realized by controlling the head consumption. Simulation results show that the lifetime of the network is significantly prolonged with the new energy-balanced strategy.

The nodes in wireless sensor networks are energy-constrained and have limited bandwidth. In addition, communication links between nodes are unpredictable and unstable. These factors make the design of routing protocols for such a network very challenging. We propose a scalable, efficient and reliable routing protocol called EAR that provides reliable data delivery from nodes to hubs in a wireless sensor network. Simulation results have shown EAR outperforming existing routing protocols.KeywordsWireless Sensor NetworkData PacketMedium Access Control ProtocolPacket Delivery RatioRREQ PacketThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.