Rules for Reasoning

A number of writers, most of them long dead, have held that science proceeds by the “Inductive Method.” Very roughly, according to this method, we are to begin our investigations with the observation and collection of facts; then, by comparing those facts, and perhaps applying to them certain rules of reasoning, we are to arrive at scientific hypotheses, theories, and/or explanations. According to some versions of the Method, no further stages need be undergone, as the methods give proof of the conclusion; newer versions insist that proof is not given by inductive reasoning, that only probability is. Some newer versions also suppose a third stage, the testing of the hypothesis arrived at. Again, different variants disagree as to what that testing can do. According to some versions, it will produce evidence that will either verify or falsity (or confirm or disconfirm) the conclusion arrived at in Stage 2; for others, only falsification is possible. These differences, and indeed, all specific variants, will be irrelevant for the present discussion, except insofar as they are used as illustrative examples. Only the core version of the approach, according to which the first stage of scientific investigation is the collection of facts or data, will be relevant.

Looking back, people often value their memories of everyday life experiences. However, people rarely create media to remember everyday life, despite the omnipresence of (photographic) technology. The authors' research-through-design process explores media creation aimed at capturing repeated events in everyday life. They explore how media can be created over time by combining multiple instances. The design of Ritual Camera explores two aspects of this process: the potential of a domestic stationary camera and the appreciation of more abstract visuals of repeated events. In this case study, they focus on capturing daily family dinners. Findings show that different abstractions hold different values for people and depend on the envisioned use. Overall, showing the diversity of experiences is appreciated more than illustrating the average situation. By approaching abstract media as cue creation, the authors illustrate that, rather than recording everything and striving for total recall, mnemonic technologies could benefit from selective automated media creation both to value the present and for remembering in the future. This article is part of a special issue on domestic pervasive computing.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the history of everyday life as a component of the school history course. The author infers that mastering knowledge about the everyday life of people of another historical era allows us to avoid a simplistic and schematic attitude to the past. At the same time, a specific feature of school history in the first decades of the twenty-first century is the direct connection of historical local history with the events of everyday life in the past. The study of the history of everyday life makes it possible to illuminate the life of both a social group, a stratum, an individual family, and the entire state and civilization. The main subject of studying the history of everyday life is ordinary people’s everyday life, changes in their lives and changes in themselves that occur in time and space. The history of everyday life is the core of social history, as it considers human life as a subject of the historical process. Its study creates opportunities to better understand social processes and changes in society around the world.

Chapter 4 - Transfer and Everyday Reasoning: Personal Development, Cultural Diversity, and Decision Making

Normothymic states in bipolar disorders are generally considered to be devoid of severe symptoms. However, bipolar patients present subsyndromal symptoms for half of their lives, and often have comorbid psychiatric disorders. If we go beyond the concept of temperamental features, can we identify certain emotional characteristics distinguishing normothymic bipolar patients from normal controls? We previously showed, using self-completed questionnaires, that normothymic bipolar patients display higher levels of emotional lability and intensity than controls. The aim of this study was to assess the emotional reactivity of normothymic bipolar patients, comparing such patients with a normal control group during an experimental mood induction procedure. We evaluated the subjective emotional reactivity of 145 subjects (90 control subjects and 55 normothymic bipolar patients), using an emotional induction method based on the viewing of a set of 18 pictures (6 positive, 6 negative, 6 neutral) extracted from the International Affective Picture System. Subjective valence and arousal were recorded with the Self-Assessment Manikin. We also recorded startle reflexes, triggered by a tone occurring during the viewing of two-thirds of the pictures. We controlled for confounding factors, such as concurrent treatments, in all analyses. Normothymic bipolar patients and normal controls assessed valence and arousal similarly for positive and negative images. However, neutral images were considered more pleasant [F(1,143) = 8.4; p = 0.004] and induced a higher level of arousal [F(1,143) = 12.3; p = 0.001] in normothymic bipolar patients than in control subjects. Neutral pictures also triggered a stronger startle reflex in normothymic bipolar patients compared to controls [F(3,123) = 3.1; p = 0.03]. Normothymic bipolar patients displayed emotional hyper-reactivity, mostly evidenced in neutral situations. This feature may be linked to emotional dysregulation and is a potential endophenotype and/or a risk factor for bipolar disorders. This trait may be responsible for vulnerability to minor stressful events in everyday life. These findings have potential implications for the daily management of bipolar disorder between crises.

The paper deals with a pre-logical communication contrasted to verbal interaction founded on logical grounds. The material for the study includes archaic incantations, modern superstitions and poetic texts. The methods of interpretative and intentional analysis have been applied. A pre-logical communication is based on the establishment of relations between objects or events devoid of cause-and-effect relationship in reality. Such conceptualization has been described, explained and terminologically fixed as participation by L. Lévy-Bruhl. It is characteristic of a magic worldview which historically precedes logical reality, but remains up to now in certain types of discourse. Psychologically, such explanation is a biased generalization of accidental connection between things. However, such illogical reality representation has a right to exist as it helps people explain the unexplainable. Semiotically it corresponds to transaction of iconic signs to signals or indices. Three types of pre-logical explanation of events in everyday life have been described in this paper, i.e. diagnostic, prognostic and magical. A pre-logical communication in literary discourse may be understood as a demonstration of universal interconnection of things and events making a whole worldview. This interconnection is based on multiple associations and intertextual allusions. Three types of pre-logical worldview may be singled out as creative, metaphoric and intertextual multiplication of reality. A deliberate usage of pre-logical communication in scientific, pedagogical, legal and political types of discourse may be qualified as a manipulative influence, whereas when used in everyday, advertising, recreational and artistic communication it is determined by the intention to broaden the limits of a routine existence.

Perseverative cognition (PC), such as worry and rumination, is a common reaction to stressful events in everyday life. According to the PC hypothesis, prolonged cognitive representations of stressful events will increase the total amount of time that these events have a “wear and tear” effect on the human body. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the role that PC plays in the onset and maintenance of stress related mental and somatic health problems. Furthermore, we propose that unconscious PC, traditionally studied within the context of psychopathology, might have substantial somatic health relevant effects as well. Finally, we present a self-regulation perspective on PC and propose that it forms part of the default response to threat, novelty and ambiguity. This default response is enhanced in chronic worriers who show excessive commitment to their goals, use PC as a strategy to cope with possible threats to goal attainment and have difficulties to recognize signals of safety. In conclusion, research on the PC hypothesis has provided valuable insight into the link between stressful events, psychopathology, and somatic health.

Sensory processing sensitivity is an individual difference that captures the extent to which people show heightened emotional reactivity to, and increased cognitive processing of, their environment. Although central to its definition, there has been no research examining whether highly sensitive individuals display stronger reactivity to naturally occurring negative and positive events in everyday life. We addressed this gap by carrying out a 21-day online diary study with 239 participants, varying in sensory processing sensitivity, who reported their daily life-satisfaction, affective experiences, and self-esteem along with appraisals of the most negative and positive events of the day. Multilevel analyses demonstrated that individuals higher in sensory processing sensitivity showed greater reactivity to more subjectively intense negative events, but no difference in their reactivity to positive events. These findings provide initial insights into how sensory processing sensitivity manifests in daily emotional reactivity with greater reactivity to negative events in our study.

Do the images we see every day influence how we remember our lives? Research on this matter often concerns how entire memories of events can be created or shaped through the use of doctored photographs of personal (Wade et al., Psychonomic bulletin & review, 9 (3), 597-603, 2002) and public events (Sacchi et al., Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21 (8), 1005-1022, 2007). Although this paradigm has yielded insights into false memory production, it may underestimate the extent to which photographs can bias or distort memory in a subtler manner (i.e., without the use of doctored photographs or suggestion). In Experiments 1 (N = 95) and 2 (N = 186) of the present study, we examined whether the mere presence of generic images, typical of stock photography, could influence aspects of our memories. Given the parallel between autobiographical remembering and forecasting (Berntsen & Bohn, Memory & Cognition, 38(3), 265-278, 2010), we also examined (Experiment 3: N=204) how such images would influence future autobiographical judgments. Specifically, three experiments investigated whether photographs would bias autobiographical judgments for either quantitative (e.g., How many movies have you seen in the past year?) or affective (e.g., How enjoyable do you think your next date will be?) aspects of events in everyday life. We found that photographs reliably influenced judgments related to quantitative aspects of autobiographical events. Moreover, though less robustly, there was an indication that these photos could bias our affective construal of such events as well. Overall, we conclude that the mere presence of generic photographs may exert an influence on the way we think about our lives to an extent previously under-recognized.

Literature generally involves all aspects of human life and life, events in works of fiction as well as events in everyday life, always carried by a certain character or perpetrators. The formulation of the problem in this analysis is how the characterization of Ainun figure is expository and dramatic in novel Habibie and Ainun Karya Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie ?. The results of data analysis and discussion, In revealing the figure Ainun figure, the author uses the technique of depiction of figures proposed by Nurgiyantoro, the technique of depiction of characters in a literary work can be distinguished in two techniques, namely expository techniques and dramatic techniques, through the technique of Ainun figure expression in novel Habibie and Ainun by Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie can be concluded that he is a figure of a very patient, while through dramatic techniques that include skillful techniques, behavioral techniques, techniques of mind and feeling, stream of consciousness techniques, reaction techniques, techniques of reactions of other figures, background and techniques of physical representation, figure Ainun is obedient and obedient to her husband, kind, responsible, has a very patient personality, he is a figure of a figure who likes peace, peace. But he had tested his loyalty to the husband that when he had to live mediocre when he was in Germany, he learned to use the maximum time so that everything can be resolved properly set the menu cheap but healthy, take care of children, husband and work. All he lived with full sincerity. Ainun always provide peace in his family with his personality. After a long time he thought to go back to work as a doctor so he could help his family's economy, but it takes recognition of UI diplomas in Germany and requires an indeterminate time process. After Ainun got back to work, Ainun was confronted with her personal problems when the children were sick and needed her to choose between work and children, based on faith, Ainun sacrificed her job as a doctor to Always be with her son and husband.

The article introduces the methodologies of the study of the everyday life of modern teenagers whiсh can simultaneously be used to traceevents occurring in real and virtual space: “Online and offline diary" and "15 minutes". The data of pilot studies showed that the teenager’s online performance is mainly presented in a form of communication in social networks. We have discovered that the on- and offline convergence of space for growth is inseparable from respondents themselves. Through the active use of social networks, a modern teenager is able to be present in different socialenvironments simultaneously. Constant checking news and posts in social networks is a new, peculiar to teenage daily ritual. The so-called "red zones", where a teenager consciously waives the possibility of "escape" into a parallel reality, are linked to significant events in everyday life, while a feeling of boredom brings to life the compensation through "getting about" in virtual space

One of the principal problems of online help is the mismatch between the specialized knowledge and technical vocabulary of experts who are providing the help, and the relative naivete of novices, who usually are often not in a position to understand solutions expressed by the expert in their own terms. Most of the interfaces are plagued by recurrent key problems: 1) elicitation - how to ask questions that enable the helper to make decisions, and at the same time, are understandable to the novice, and 2) explanation - how to explain rationale behind expert decisions in terms that the user can understand. One of the best ways to do this is for the expert to provide analogies in terms of Commonsense knowledge, which provide metaphors that help novices learn problem-solving skills. SuggestDesk is a system that acts as an advisor to an online technical support person. It uses a large Commonsense knowledge base to search for analogies between known technical problem-solution pairs, and situations and events in everyday life that can be used to explain them.

Knowing the concept of gratitude for Islamic education is very important, that building the concept of gratitude for Islamic education is an effort to foster a mentality that excels in both the knowledge and routine aspects of Islamic Education and also gives a positive response to Islamic education, about how the concept of gratitude is needed to build and improve Islamic education that is noble, disciplined and has achievement motivation. This research focuses on the concept of gratitude in Surat al-Baqarah verse 172 and its implications for Islamic education. This research includeslibrary research by collecting data from literature. In analyzing the data using the methoddescriptive analysis. By using an interpretative and normative approach. The results of the study state that the implications of the concept of gratitude for Islamic education in the study of Surat al-Baqarah verse 172 include: 1. Humans are obliged to always be grateful at all times, especially when they get pleasure. 2. Gratitude in Islamic education is the most important thing that will create a sense of qana'ah, patience, and sincerity. So that it can build Islamic education to be more disciplined, achievement and noble. The research results stated; 1). In essence, a person always gets favors, so because of that someone must be grateful at all times. 2). The implications of gratitude for Islamic education include: implications for educators, implications for students, implications for institutions. The author hopes that this research will continue to be developed so that lessons can be learned in everyday life.

This study is the first to examine adolescents' reasons for unfriending people on Facebook. By means of open-end questions, 419 participants described the primary online (i.e., arising from friends' behavior on Facebook) or offline (i.e., emerging from Facebook friends' offline behavior) reason for which they recently unfriended someone. Two researchers took part in the coding process. Qualitative analyses revealed that unfriending happened mainly for online reasons, such as posting (too much) inappropriate, polarizing, or uninteresting posts; seeking attention, bragging, or stalking; and other irritating behaviors (e.g., using bad grammar). Some adolescents indicated that they unfriended people because of online reasons related to replacing friendships or interests, quarrels, and incompatible friends/family. In previous studies among adults, quarrels and incompatible friends/family were reported solely as offline reasons. These findings suggest that adolescents potentially argue more often online or that their quarrel is so intense it leads to unfriending decisions. Adults in turn, also unfriend people because of posts related to everyday life (e.g., jobs and children). Such everyday life events seemed to be less relevant for adolescents' unfriending. The practical value of this study is that it provides a typology of adolescents' online and offline reasons for unfriending. This typology can be used for further research or by practitioners developing awareness campaigns as it indicates which behavior/events mostly provoke unfriending. Although viewing a post as inappropriate or polarizing might be subjective, general guidelines on how to respectfully address sensitive issues (e.g., political, religious, or other societal issues) can be given.

Intuitive predictions and judgements under uncertainty are often mediated by judgemental heuristics that sometimes lead to biases. Our micro-developmental study suggests that a presumption of rationality is justified for adult subjects, in so far as their systematic judgemental biases appear to be due to a specific executive-inhibition failure in working memory, and not necessarily to a lack of understanding of the fundamental principles of probability. This hypothesis was tested using an experimental procedure in which 60 adult subjects were trained to inhibit the classical conjunction bias on a frequency judgement task derived from Tversky and Kahneman's work. Pre- and post-test performance was assessed via a probability judgement task. The data indicated a training effect, suggesting that subjects traditionally labelled as “irrational” with respect to the classical rules of inductive reasoning are in fact “inefficient inhibitors”. These findings are discussed in terms of a polymorphous view of rationality.