Some misconceptions frequently detected in students of compiler construction courses

The paper describes the experience gained by teaching a project-based course in Compiler Construction. The course is a blend of theoretical concepts and practical considerations that go into the development of a compiler. A project in compiler writing is an important component of this course. ASP, a subset of standard PASCAL, is used as the source language. The compiler for ASP is to be developed in various phases: character manipulator, lexical analyzer, syntax analyzer, semantic analyzer, and code generator. Recursive descent method is used to parse the various syntactic entities. The code generator emits code for a hypothetical machine called AOC (ALGOL Object Code). A simulator executes this code.

Student projects in compiler construction courses are often limited to the implementation of toy languages, making the project's scope manageable but also restricting the number of interesting input programs. ART (Array Removal Transformation) is a language whose compiler translates array-based ART programs into array-less toy language programs which use only simple (non-aggregate) types. This allows algorithms to be expressed in toy languages that would not otherwise be feasible.ART's translation process creates large input files to stress-test student compilers, which are often not subjected to such testing.

This paper presents CheRegES (CHEcking REGular Expression-based Specifications), a tool that assists the Compiler Construction instructor in checking the equivalence of computer language lexical specifications based on regular expressions. The tool allows the comparison of a reference specification, provided by the instructor, with the specification proposed by the student. As a result, the tool can report that: (i) both specifications are equivalent (and, therefore, the specification proposed by the student can be considered correct); (ii) there are discrepancies between the specification proposed by the student and the one provided by the instructor (and, therefore, the specification proposed by the student can be considered incorrect); or (iii) the result of the comparison is inconclusive. Also, in case discrepancies are discovered, the tool provides sentences that allow differentiation between the two specifications, and that help the instructor to diagnose the problems underlying the student’s specification. The paper motivates the need for the tool, describes its functionality, briefly summarizes its internals, and presents a preliminary evaluation of the tool that makes the usefulness of CheRegES as a tool to support assessment in Compiler Construction courses apparent.

The leading role in anthropocentric studies belongs to linguopragmatics, since it is a manifestation of the human factor at all levels of language. The synthesis of views expressed in Dontsov’s works is usually based on antitheses having a specific communicative task: to compare positive and negative aspects, or otherwise contrast Dontsov`s position with a different position. The article is aimed at examining the pragmatic aspect of Dontsov`s texts using the example of antithesis. Achieving this aim involves solving the following tasks: 1) characterize the ways Dmytro Dontsov`s pragmatic intentions are implemented; 2) identify Dontsov`s strategy and show the methods of its argumentation in a journalistic text; 3) analyze the text synergetics as the main means of expressing the author’s communicative and pragmatic potential. The study uses the method of argument, subjectivity, intent analysis, and the method of content analysis. It also applies linguistic observation and descriptive methods as additional methods. Research results. Dontsov`s texts were used as a basis to characterize the ways of implementing pragmatic intentions aimed at forming national principles. The study focuses on identifying the subjective factor in his works and showing the nature of the pragmatization of statements reproducing antitheses. The relevance of the study is determined by the pragmatic features of Dmytro Dontsov`s works and his active approach to selecting lexical and semantic constructions to achieve the communicative goal. The thinker successfully uses the antithesis in his works, as the information reaches the addressee through the display of positive and negative plates and results in the formation of ideas of aggressiveness, and certainty as opposed to passivity and tearfulness. It is important that Dontsov`s works have a hidden meaning because each historical period gives a different understanding of the social and political situation. The basic strategy used by Dontsov to express the communicative potential is the antithesis analyzed on the basis of the semantic component of “sovereign Ukraine”. Based on the antithesis, the argumentative field of the author`s influence on the reader can be conveniently classified into levels (semantic, lexical, stylistic, and syntactic) creating a synergy of the text. The argumentative material influencing the reader at the semantic level is emotionally expressive vocabulary (figurative, colloquial words, etc.), so this is an emotional level. The lexical level is a reproduction of the author`s position, his ability to create new meanings, use scientific lexis, and argue with specific proper names (this is an intellectual and historical level). The pragmatic intention of the author is achieved at the stylistic level through stylistic devices, such as comparisons, individual-author metaphors, and epithets (this is an aesthetic level). The syntactic level replicates Dontsov`s thoughts full of dependent clauses, amplifications, rhetorical questions, and citations. In Dmytro Dontsov`s texts we distinguish: 1) thesis argumentation, where each statement is sufficient to confirm opinion); 2) chain (sequential) argumentation, congesting a sequence of arguments; 3) extensive argumentation, where the author substantiates several opinions at the same time; 4) multi-vector argumentation, when different types of argumentation are combined. All these argumentative elements form a complex cognitive structure, which we define as convergent (linear) thinking and divergent thinking with branched and multiple arguments. It is proved that on the syntax level the most used is divergent type of argumentation. We consider this level to be a direction of his political actions. Particularly coherent and convincing is a synergistic (existential) level that reproduces the author`s views and his ability to work with words. However, such a division into levels is conditional, since the main features of these levels are always supplemented by additional ones, for example, the lexical level or the syntactic level are also filled with emotional lexemes. The pragmatic factor of Dmytro Dontsov`s worldview becomes clear after reading his works, which become guidelines for changing public consciousness and forming the line of the struggle for a Ukrainian independent state. Thus, antitheses used by the journalist affirm (according to the terminology of pragmatics, a change strategy) the reader’s opinions (or mental activity).

This Article discusses the impacts of the introduction of a data ownership scheme on access to information. It does so with reference to the distinction between data, defined as some representation of information by a specific medium (the syntactic level), and the information itself (the semantic level). With respect to data, it then looks at the difference between standard property rights and intellectual property (IP) rights, similarly assessing impacts on access to information. Private control at the semantic level is bad policy as it effects particularly serious limitations, relative to private control at the syntactic level, on the availability of information in society. IP-type rights similarly effect more serious limitations on the availability of information in society than do standard property rights over data. Focusing on the syntactic-semantic divide to discuss the data ownership case clarifies a few things. First, although there are reasons to be more solicitous of the case for data ownership for data subjects than the case for data ownership for others, there must be an acknowledgment of the fact that the former case often requires data ownership over the information itself. The two premier rationales for granting data ownership to data subjects are that such rights would enable data subjects to protect their privacy, and that it would enable them to claim a share in the benefits of the data economy. This Article points out that any effective attainment of these rationales for data ownership for data subjects requires that data subjects be empowered to exclude others from information even before its collection—that is, even before its representation in syntactic form. This is exclusion power over semantic information. Second, the data ownership for data subjects case is less objectionable in the context of control at the syntactic level as such control is less likely to lead to indirect semantic-level control. By contrast, control at the syntactic level by data collectors creates the problem of indirect semantic control. There is, therefore, no meaningful case for data ownership for data collectors, even at the syntactic level. But the reduced likelihood of indirect semantic-level control in the context of data subjects means that there are sometimes prospects for propertarian rights for data subjects over data being structured to avoid semantic control. What emerges from this understanding is a pattern in which policy supports some syntactic bases for a propertarian remedy for data subjects, but otherwise counsels against data ownership. Finally, those bases for a propertarian remedy over data for data subjects are limited to discrete areas where data ownership for data subjects can be deployed with little, or no, control being exerted at the semantic level, and therefore at little to no cost in public access to information. This is likely to be especially true in the context of standard property as semantic-level control by data subjects is more likely to be a non-issue in this case.

• Figurative language styles are analyzed at lexical, syntactic, semantic, discourse-level, and pragmatic NLP levels • Discourse-level styles dominate due to sarcasm’s prevalence in social media • Arabic ranks second in dataset count, but lacks stylistic diversity coverage • Embedding-based features lead performance, especially in semantic tasks • Publicly available datasets remain scarce for pragmatic and syntactic styles Figurative language detection has emerged as a critical task in natural language processing (NLP), enabling machines to comprehend non-literal expressions such as metaphor, irony, and sarcasm. This study presents a systematic literature review with a multilevel analytical framework, examining figurative language across lexical, syntactic, semantic, discourse, and pragmatic levels. We investigate the interplay between feature engineering, model architectures, and annotation strategies across different languages, analyzing datasets, linguistic resources, and evaluation metrics. Special attention is given to morphologically rich and low-resource languages, where deep learning dominates but rule-based and hybrid approaches remain relevant. Our findings indicate that deep learning models–especially transformer-based architectures like BERT and RoBERTa–consistently outperform other approaches, particularly in semantic and discourse-level tasks, due to their ability to capture context-rich and abstract patterns. However, these models often lack interpretability, raising concerns about transparency. Additional challenges include inconsistencies in annotation practices, class imbalance between figurative and literal instances, and limited data coverage for under-resourced languages. The absence of standardized evaluation metrics further complicates cross-study comparison, especially when diverse figurative language styles are involved. By structuring our analysis through linguistic and computational dimensions, this review aims to facilitate the development of more robust, inclusive, and explainable figurative language detection systems.

In the era of big data, linguistic studies with quantitative methods have gained momentum. Ever since the approval of the project ‘Quantitative Linguistic Research of Contemporary Chinese’ in 2011, the research group led by Professor Haitao Liu has continued to investigate quantitative features of Chinese texts as well as other languages from four aspects, that is, quantitative research on a lexical level, on a syntactic level, and on other levels like phonemic, discourse, and semantic levels, as well as quantitative research based on the complex network approach. This group aims to explore universal laws of all languages while still paying attention to differences across different languages. In this project report, the main research papers published in the past five years are reviewed. Through these studies, we can find that the quantitative method has attracted the attention of Chinese linguists.

The object of analysis in this article is the Macedonian translation of Salinger’s novel The Catcher in the Rye. It is considered to be one of the most controversial novels of the last century due to the themes the author elaborates, but also due to the use of mid-twentieth-century slang then common to young Americans. For that reason, our study will be conducted through the prism of Berman’s theory of text deformation systems, and special attention will be paid to the destruction of vernacular networks and tendency towards ennoblement. We will also take into consideration Eco’s views on translation as an act of negotiation, being aware that when translating slang the translator is obliged to negotiate between domestication and foreignisation. In order to analyse the offered equivalents, we will also examine the use of different translation techniques and, in certain contexts, offer more appropriate solutions from a translatological point of view. The research will be done on phonological, lexical, idiomatic and syntactic levels. On a phonological level, we will examine the solutions offered for deletion of phonemes and word contraction. On a lexical level, the focus will be placed on the slang vocabulary, but the study will also include interjections, particles as well as the use of augmentatives and diminutives in the target text. We will also analyse different translation solutions offered for idioms and some specific syntactic structures. The analysis reveals both successful solutions and also, certain inadequacies, thus preparing the way for improved translations in the future.

Language analysis has always been a popular subject in computer science; henceforth a vast knowledge base for compiler construction is available nowadays and consequently one can devise several models that provide efficient methods to determine the acceptance of a programming language, either at a lexical, syntactic or semantic level. By evaluating and analyzing existing techniques, we have noticed that certain algorithm complexity or grammar adaptation was required to accomplish an efficient solution. Therefore here lies the motivation for the current research. We are going to present an implementation based on a lexical and syntactic analysis model seeking to fulfill the following requisites: simplicity and expressiveness, algorithm efficiency and reduced grammar adaptation. Lexical resolution was mainly supported by regular language acceptance, whereas the subsequent syntactic analysis was performed with a pushdown automaton allowing an efficient method to recognize a context free language, avoiding additional elements, such as action-goto tables, often used in bottom-up parsers. The proposed model highlights the underlying relationship between language interpretation and automata theory. Then you may encounter an interesting approach which will provide a way to go through the most basic concepts of formal language theory and how these are wielded for solving syntactic analysis problems.

The article examines the transformation of the communicative image of Russia in the British media in the context of a special military operation in Ukraine. The scientific problem lies in the fact that in the conditions of the global information space, the communicative dialogue of states is carried out not only through factual information, but also through the prism of the linguistic features of a particular civilization, through which a negative image is built. Based on a comprehensive linguistic analysis key trends and means of constructing a negative image of Russia have been identified. The research methodology includes content analysis, which made it possible to determine the most frequent contexts of the use of the lexeme "Russia", and critical discourse analysis aimed at identifying the deep meanings and ideological attitudes behind specific language forms. The results show that the lexical and semantic level is dominated by militaristic discourse At the level of rhetoric and stylistics, negatively colored metaphors play a key role. At the syntactic level, attention is drawn to the abundance of parallel constructions that escalate the series of negative characteristics of Russia. It is concluded that the communicative image of Russia in the British media is undergoing a radical negative transformation.

Leksičke značajke deseteračkih dvostiha u tiskanim zapisima Slavka Jankovića i rukopisnoj ostavštini Luke Lukića

This chapter explores expressive questions in English and French. It is usage-based and draws upon a sample of naturally occurring data. It focuses on what the hell questions in English and mais qu’est-ce que questions in French. A distinction is made between two types of expressivity, which have been labeled emotional expressivity and iconic expressivity. They both convey intensification and may operate at the lexical, discursive, semantic, or syntactic levels. In what the hell questions, the left periphery is a core area for activating expressivity, while in mais qu’est-ce que questions, expressivity markers are varied and not restricted to the left periphery. Iconic expressivity is claimed to be unrelated to the speaker’s emotional attitude and triggered by enactment markers.

Language technologies applied to document simplification for helping autistic people

In the context of globalization and the strategy of “Chinese culture going global”, the English translation of Chinese literature is of great significance to promote the spread of Chinese culture. Mo Yan’s Sandalwood Death shows rich regional culture and a unique flavor with its “folk voices”. Under the guidance of Nida’s functional equivalence theory, this study focuses on three types of “folk voices” in Sandalwood Death, including dialect colloquialisms, Xiehouyu (two-part allegorical sayings) and Maoqiang, and systematically evaluates the translation strategies and effects of Howard Goldblatt’s English version at the lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels through text comparison and case analysis. On the whole, the translator achieves functional equivalence at the semantic level through creative translation, feature dilution, semantic supplement and other translation strategies, but has some shortcomings in aesthetic effect. This study not only deepens the understanding of the characteristics of the English translation of Sandalwood Death, but also provides useful inspiration on how to reproduce the “folk voice” in the cross-cultural communication of Chinese literature.

Application programmer's interfaces give access to domain knowledge encapsulated in class libraries without providing the appropriate notation for expressing domain composition. Since object-oriented languages are designed for extensibility and reuse, the language constructs are often sufficient for expressing domain abstractions at the semantic level. However, they do not provide the right abstractions at the syntactic level. In this paper we describe MetaBorg, a method for providing concrete syntax for domain abstractions to application programmers. The method consists of embedding domain-specific languages in a general purpose host language and assimilating the embedded domain code into the surrounding host code. Instead of extending the implementation of the host language, the assimilation phase implements domain abstractions in terms of existing APIs leaving the host language undisturbed. Indeed, MetaBorg can be considered a method for promoting APIs to the language level. The method is supported by proven and available technology, i.e. the syntax definition formalism SDF and the program transformation language and toolset Stratego/XT. We illustrate the method with applications in three domains: code generation, XML generation, and user-interface construction.