Spanish American Port Cities

This essay provides an intellectual history for the cultural turn that transformed the human sciences in the mid-20th century and led to the creation of cultural sociology in the late 20th century. It does so by conceptualizing and contextualizing the limitations of the binary primitive/modernity. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, leading thinkers – among them Marx, Weber, Durkheim, and Freud – confined thinking and feeling styles like ritual, symbolism, totem, and devotional practice to a primitivism that would be transformed by the rationality and universalism of modernity. While the barbarisms of the 20th century cast doubt on such predictions, only an intellectual revolution could provide the foundations for an alternative social theory. The cultural turn in philosophy, aesthetics, and anthropology erased the division between primitive and modern; in sociology, the classical writings of Durkheim were recentered around his later, religious sociology. These intellectual currents fed into a cultural sociology that challenged the sociology of culture, creating radically new research programs in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

The aim of this study is to elaborate comparative portraits of Korean and Japanese beauty in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Six portraits of beauty in the Korean Joseon Dynasty (early 19th century) and 5 in Japanese Edo Dynasty (late 18th century) were analyzed. Twenty anthropometric items were applied to the measure of the features on each portrait and 18 proportional indices of the face were calculated. Among the 18 indices, Korean and Japanese beauty did not show any significant differences in 13, but in 5: 1) the ratio of eye fissure to intercanthal distance was greater in Japanese beauty; 2) eye inclination was greater in Japanese beauty; 3) the ratio of nasal width to intercanthal distance was greater in Japanese beauty; 4) the ratio of nasal and facial width was greater in Korean beauty; and 5) the ratio of vermilion size to mouth width was greater in Japanese beauty. It is assumed that Korean had narrower eye fissure, lower eye inclination, wider nasal ala, and thinner lip than what Japanese craved during that era.

The article is devoted to the analysis of statistical data on Moldovans and Romanians living on Belarus’ lands in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. According to the census of the Russian Empire in 1897, 215 Moldovans and Romanians lived in the Belarusian and Lithuanian lands. In the data used in this census, the concepts of “Moldovan language” and “Romanian language” were generally understood as identical. According to the Polish census of 1921, 12 Romanians lived on the territory of western Belarus. The data used in this census includes ethnic identity and the native language of the population. According to the Soviet census of 1926, 63 Moldovans and 54 Romanians lived in the Belarusian SSR. The gradual formation of the Moldovan diaspora began in the Belarusian lands at the end of the 19th century.

The academic focus on multiculturalism in the late 20th century gives the impression that society was homogeneous until very recently. In particular, and despite the efforts of numerous scholars, the myth persists that the Appalachian region is a static and uniform society made up of poor white mountaineers. But the social and cultural make-up of the region is much more complicated than some are willing to admit, and its history is replete with examples of multicultural encounters and incidences of cooperation. One of the most ecumenical and complex of those was undertaken by the 19th-century religious and social reformers who established the Salem School and Orphanage in Elk Park, North Carolina. In this relatively isolated mountain community, Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Mennonite missionaries identified and attempted to address the needs of an African­ American community. The Salem School and Orphanage was an anomaly in the mountain reform movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Mission work on behalf of blacks in Appalachia was rare because of entrenched racism, because of the relatively low percentage of African Americans in the region, but more importantly because of a general perception that the greater need was to uplift poverty-stricken mountain whites. James Klotter has argued that the poverty among white mountaineers "allowed some reformers to turn with clear conscience away from blacks" to aid an Appalachia that was characterized by its "whiteness." Klotter's thesis does not account for the Salem School and Orphanage. Its story is all but forgotten and provides a counterpoint to those dominant white-oriented missionary trends. The story of the Salem School can be best understood in the context of the broader missionary educational reform movements of the late 19th century and the unique contribution of the Mennonite Brethren Church.

19세기 후반 이래 활발히 진행된 러시아 여성자선단체들의 활동은 당시 러시아 여성들이 처한 어려운 사회경제적 환경을 배경으로 그들에게 물질적 지원과 사회활동의 기회를 제공해 주는 것을 일차적인 목표로 설정하고, 우선 어려움에 처한 여성들을 구제하는데 적극 나섰다. 이들은 도시 여성 빈곤층에게 음식과 주거 등 생활필수품을 제공하고, 어린 아이들을 돌보았으며, 질병 예방 및 치료 등 시급한 의료 서비스 제공에도 나섰다. 또한 反알콜, 매춘척결, 순결운동 등 다양 한 사회계몽 운동도 벌였다. 나아가 이들 여성자선단체들은 교육지원 활동을 통 해 빈곤층 여성들에게 지식과 새로운 관념을 심어주고, 직업적 선택권의 폭을 넓혀 안정적 생활수준을 유지하게 하며, 그들에게 격하된 도덕ㆍ윤리적 수준을 높이려 하였다. 이러한 여성자선단체를 설립하고 주도적 역할을 한 것은 황후를 비롯 귀부인, 기업가 내지 대상인들의 부인들이었다. 19세기 후반 ‘여성자선활동’을 고무시킨 요인 중에 하나는 새로운 입법개혁을 통해 자선활동에 대한 법률적 제한이 완화되어 여성들도 합법적으로 여성자선단체를 조직하고 활동할 수 있는 법적 근거가 마련된 것이다. 여성자선단체들의 다양한 활동에도 불구하고, 황실가의 후원을 받는 일부 단체들을 제외하고는 대부분의 단체들은 기금의 부족과 체계적인 조직 그리고 운영의 미숙 등으로 어려움을 겪었다. 그럼에도 불구하고, 19세기 후반~20세기 초 여성 자선단체들의 활동은 사회 엘리트 상류계층의 사회적ㆍ도덕적 의무가 어떻게 현실 사회에 구현되었는가를 보여준 선례로서 충분히 가치가 있다 하겠다.The activities of Russian women charities, which have been active since the late 19th century, set the primary goal of providing them with material support and opportunities for social activities considering the difficult socioeconomic environment faced by Russian women at that time, and actively sought to save women in need. They provided necessities such as food and housing to the poor women in urban areas, took care of their young children, and provided urgent medical services such as disease prevention and treatment. They also launched various social enlightenment campaigns, such as ‘temperance movement,’ ‘prostitution eradication’ and ‘chastity movement’. In addition, these women’s charities tried to instill knowledge and new ideas to poor women, expand the scope of career options to maintain a stable living standard, and raise the moral and ethical standards lowered by them through educational support activities. It was the empress, ladies, businessmen and the wives of wealthy merchants who founded and played a leading role in the organizations. They tried to actively implement the traditional emotional or religious beliefs that emphasized the social responsibility of individuals or the rich as universal values in Russian society. One of the factors that inspired “female charity” in the late 19th century was the legal basis for women to legally organize and operate women’s charities through new legislative reforms. Despite the various activities of women’s charities, with the exception of some organizations sponsored by the imperial family, most organizations have suffered from a lack of funds, systematic organization and operation. There was also a limit that their activities were not extended to rural areas where the majority of Russian women lived. Nevertheless, the activities of women’s charities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries are valuable as a precedent of how social and moral obligations of the social elite were embodied in society.

Cirque du Soleil and Its Roots in Illegitimate Circus

Constructed on its natural bay as a fortified Muslim town in the late 18th century, Haifa’s port city transformed into a modern cosmopolitan port city in the second half of the 19th century. Significant technological, administrative, and social changes made Haifa into the transportation and economic hub of northern Palestine: Its harbor, the first in the region, became a gate to the east for commodities, pilgrimages, and ideas. British imperialism enlarged it with landfill areas and added an industrial function, constructing refineries and a connecting pipeline with Iraq. Haifa port served as the main entry port for immigration and goods for the newly founded Israeli state. Privatization and neo-liberalization transformed it from national port to international corporate hub, reshaping both port and city. Individual entrepreneurs, local governments, and imperial actions shaped and reshaped the landscape; perforating new access points, creating porous borders, and a new socioeconomic sphere.<strong> </strong>This process persisted through the Late Ottoman era, the British Mandate, and the Israeli state. From the first Ottoman landfills to the sizeable British harbor of 1933, the market economy led urban planning of Haifa’s waterfront and its adjacent railroad to the current Chinese petrol-harbor project. What were the city’s tangible and intangible borders? How did these changes, influenced by local and foreign agendas, unfold? Tapping into built-environment evidence; archival documents (architectural drawings, plans, maps, and photographs); and multidisciplinary academic literature to examine Haifa’s urban landscape transformation, this article studies the history of Haifa’s planned urban landscape—focusing on transformations to the port and waterfront to adjust to new technologies, capital markets, and political needs. We thus explore Haifa port history as a history of porosity and intangibility—rather than the accepted history of European modernization—building upon theoretical literature on global networks and urban form, regional dynamics of port cities, and tangible and intangible border landscapes.

The left-wing party press, which was published by the Dnieper Ukrainians in Galicia and Bukovina early in the 20th century and was intended for the mass reader in the «Little Russian Governorates» of tsarist Russia is viewed. The leading sections of the publications, the relation between the political and national components of the media content and the methods of expanding the reader’s audience are analyzed. The attention to the issues of financing the publishing activity is paid.Introduction. The examples of the common work of Ukrainian politicians, scholars, writers and journalists of the Dnieper and Western Ukraine on the issues of understanding of national cohesion became evident from the late 19th century — early in the 20th century. An original example of this kind of cooperation is the press of the Dnieper Ukrainian political emigration early in the 20th century.The aim of the paper is a scientific analysis of the communication efforts of the left-wing Dnieper Ukrainian party journalism, which was published on the territory of Galicia and Bukovina early in the 20th century.Research Methodology. The methods which are used in the study are the following: chronological, comparative, analysis and synthesis, the method of the systematic approach.Results. The first Ukrainian political parties that emerged in Galicia in the late 19th century formulated the strategic task of the struggle for the political independence of Ukraine. That was a fresh impetus to the politicization of the national movement also on the eastern Ukrainian lands. The intensification of the press work of the political forces of the Dnieper Ukraine in Galicia and Bukovina was facilitated not only by the prohibition of the Ukrainian word in the Russian-ruled Ukraine, but also by the support of the Ukrainian political leaders of Austria-Hungary.Conclusions. Due to ethnographic, political, geographic and other causes, the lands of Galicia and Bukovina were the arena of organizational activity of political parties of the all-Ukrainian direction early in the 20th century. There is no doubt that despite some differences in the media content, both the «Galician» and the «Dnieper Ukrainian» editions worked for the unity of the Ukrainian people and have created the important preconditions for the Ukrainian War of Independence of 1917–1921 and the subsequent work of comprehension of the Unity of Ukraine.Keywords: social-democratic movement early in the 20th century, Ukrainian political press of the early 20th century, political cooperation of Ukrainians of the Dnieper and Western Ukraine early in the 20th century.

The indoor air science community is familiar with both the research and community hygiene efforts of Max Joseph von Pettenkofer (1818-1902). Among his many great achievements and contributions to the science, policy, and practice of hygiene,1 Pettenkofer first observed and demonstrated how carbon dioxide could be used as the main indicator of indoor air quality when determining the required ventilation rate in a building. Today, this indicator remains in use as industry standard practice. To honor the pioneering contributions of Pettenkofer to building ventilation, the International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate (ISIAQ) established the Pettenkofer Gold Medal in the late 1990s. This medal has been awarded at each of the Indoor Air conferences since 1999, in recognition of an individual's outstanding work toward advancing the indoor air sciences.2 One of the most frequently told stories of Pettenkofer is a germ swallowing drama. Pettenkofer did not believe in the germ theory set forth by Robert Koch (1843-1910), having developed his own soil miasma theory of cholera. To prove his theory, he requested a sample of Vibrio cholerae bacteria from Koch's team and, on October 7, 1892, at the age of 74, he swallowed an estimated 109 bacteria in front of an audience after emptying and neutralizing his stomach. Remarkably, Pettenkofer suffered only mild symptoms after swallowing this pathogenic solution. Earlier writers suggested that he was lucky and have offered various unverifiable explanations.3 Why would such a leading pioneer and thinker in the field of hygiene have missed the new era of the successful germ theory of disease? Locher 1 summarized that “Pettenkofer postulated the existence of a cholera germ that bred in the intestine and spread by means of human excrement, but that was not contagious. This germ, incapable of triggering an epidemic by itself, had to coincide with certain putrescent materials existing in the soil to produce a highly infectious agent that caused cholera.” In other words, although Pettenkofer did not deny the existence of the microbe, he denied its direct infectivity. Accordingly, the soil miasma theory was a result of a conceptual error even though it was developed following extensive epidemiological investigations, according to Evans.3 But why did Pettenkofer feel the need to perform a dramatic and potentially fatal act such as swallowing a lethal pathogen? On this topic, he said, “I would have died in the service of science like a soldier on the field of honor”.3 This leads to the following question: What are the major differences between his theory, which he defended so passionately, and that of Robert Koch? When some of us first began to learn about the science and engineering of ventilation, we may have read the excellent review written by Jan Sundell, a former editor-in-chief of theIndoor Air journal. Sundell wrote that, “indoor air was believed to be a major environmental factor for more than a hundred years, from the start of the hygienic revolution, around 1850, until outdoor environmental issues entered the scene, and became dominant around 1960”.4 A new researcher in the field of indoor air sciences might wonder why society experienced a sudden shift then in focus away from such an important element as indoor air. What were the major issues with indoor air in Europe around 1850 that are not with us today? This question can be answered by reference to the miasma theory and also to recognizing the role of crowding. People died at much younger ages in the 18th and 19th centuries than at present, and, accordingly, both physicians and the community focused strongly on public health. At that time, foul or polluted air was suspected to spread disease among people, and lethal diseases were given priority. In light of the hypothesis that disease is spread by corrupted air and pollution, improved sanitation standards in all buildings, streets, and cities, which included improving the indoor air quality via better ventilation, comprised one of the major efforts to escape from disease. Indoor air hygiene efforts in Western countries in the 19th century also coincided with the need for improved sanitation in urban areas and for reducing the incidence of disease as urban populations grew. According to Ekici,5 “Starting in the 1830s and 1840s, a growing number of middle-class reformers in Germany, Britain, France, and the United States raised public awareness of health issues. Their agenda included all aspects of urban design, from sewers and water supplies to street layouts and the construction of healthy buildings…When hygiene first emerged as a new science, it was closely associated with physiology. The physiology of the human body dominated nineteenth-century scientific thought, providing visual theoretical models for the laws of life and mind.” Tuberculosis, smallpox, and cholera were probably among the top microbial killers of the 19th century. In 1864, Pasteur demonstrated that the theory of spontaneous generation was incorrect. Specifically, he showed that microscopic life could only originate from other life and could not be generated from inorganic substances or non-living organic debris. This discovery was a major scientific milestone. In the late 19th century, some laboratories began to culture pathogens specifically responsible for different diseases. For example, Robert Koch identified the causal bacterium of tuberculosis in 1882 andVibrio cholera, the causative agent for cholera, in 1883. Humans now understood that each infectious disease resulted from a particular microbe. This discovery was powerful, as it enabled the identification of any location, person, or item harboring a particular infectious microbe as a potential health hazard and target for intervention. This discovery ushered in a new era of targeted interventions for preventing infectious diseases in humans. As described by Barnes,6 “the new public health” since the 1880s “narrowed the range of factors identified as potential causes of disease. Just as clearly, it broadened the range of official interventions that could be brought to bear on the prevention of infectious disease, as well as the laws, regulations, and institutions that could facilitate those interventions.” The old miasma theory was concerned with possible associations between environmental factors (eg, polluted air) and diseases, whereas the new germ theory addressed the causation of disease by a particular pathogen. Accordingly, once the specific pathogen was well controlled, the disease spread could be stopped. It was difficult to believe that a highly intelligent person such as Pettenkofer could not appreciate such a simple but powerful idea. Therefore, one might ask: Was he preoccupied with a more powerful idea? The development of germ theory was indeed rapid in the late 19th century, and scientists were excited about its potential applications for disease control. People quickly realized that germs were present not only invisibly in the air but also, importantly, to a greater extent in some environments more than others. In this context, indoor air quality became important. In the late 1870s and early 1880s, researchers at the Montsouris Observatory measured the airborne microbe concentrations at various locations in Paris (6, Page 42). Since then, humans have not only identified the microbes, but have also determined how to count these organisms. In Paris, indoor air from hospitals was found to harbor 100,000 microbes per cubic meter, compared to 10,000 and 1000 per cubic meter in outdoor air from the city center and from a park on the southern edge of the city, respectively (6, Page 129). Chauvel thus estimated that a tenth of the city air microbes detected in Paris were derived from the countryside (6, Page 130). Chauvel also reported that the incidence rates of some diseases, such as typhoid fever, smallpox, and measles, “followed almost exactly with one week's lag” behind the relative numbers of detected bacteria, “so that a rise in the latter announces an increase in these diseases, just as the falling barometer announces bad weather.” However, Chauvel did not provide a reference for the location or methodology related to this finding. Interestingly, people in France learned that ocean and mountain air were microscopically cleanest, whereas hospital air was dirtiest. Scientists at that time even recognized that wind could carry and transport dusts and microbes over long distances (the exact distances were not specified). Further, Marie-Davy (6, Page 136) reported in 1882 that not all microbes were equally dangerous. “By what special grace…would these microbes all be harmless to us…If these microbes were all inoffensive, why would we see, every season, variations in mortality by [infectious] disease follow in such a…regular manner the variations of the total number of microbes contained in the air that we breathe?” Pasteur and his colleagues concurred by stating that “not everything that stinks kills, and not everything that kills stinks” (6, Page 47). The miasma theory appeared to be related to early developments in chemistry and microbiology. Pringle7 wrote: “I conceive that the miasma or septic ferment (consisting of the effluvia from putrid substances) received into the blood, has a power of corrupting the whole mass. Its resolution and sometimes even its smell in the advanced state of a malignant fever, the offensiveness of the sweats and other excretions, the livid spots, blotches, and mortifications incident to this distemper, are proofs of what is here advanced.” Black 8 recalled that “in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, intelligent observers of contagious diseases, after much study of the subject, came to the conclusion they were caused and propagated by a process identical with or similar to fermentation and decomposition.” Of course not all early scientists agreed with the miasma theory; for example, Bell9 rejected the concept of a miasma. Schroeder (8, Page 28) tested the concept that air filtered “with cotton batting” would “catch any solid particles in the shape of spores or germs.” Thus, he “conclusively disproved the existence of gaseous ferments claimed by chemists, by admitting air filtered through cotton batting to sterilized fluids without causing fermentation.” The miasma theory existed long before the filth theory, and the latter may be considered as a modification of the former. Without knowing the exact causes of diseases, people adopted the filth theory and considered everything dirty to be lethal. Since then, of course, the success of the germ theory of disease has become well-known. One may also appreciate the contributions of the miasma theory of disease to the development of the germ theory. Based on the miasma theory, bacteriologists knew where to find the causative pathogens of specific diseases (eg, sick patients or dead bodies). The well-known successes of the miasma and filth theories of disease likely led to broad efforts to improve sanitation and hygiene. By the early 20th century, Chapin10 recognized that “until very recently it was thought that the air was the chief vehicle of infection. This was but natural. No one could see infection and what was more natural than to think it gaseous like the invisible air.” Equipped with knowledge about targeted pathogens, “we are no longer in terror of some all-pervading epidemic influence from which there is no escape. We do not worry about the ‘fall fever’ which came regularly and mysteriously, for we now know just how typhoid fever is spread and how it can be avoided…Science allays fear by substituting light for darkness.” We can certainly imagine the terror and fear that a “fall fever” would have caused at that time. From the viewpoint of health, I have personally divided history in a simplistic manner. In the 18th and 19th centuries, urbanization in Europe and subsequently in the United States led to the general filth theory (association) of diseases. Since the 1870s and mostly in the 20th century, the discoveries by Pasteur and Koch of specific microbes responsible for particular infectious diseases led to the germ theory (cause) of disease, which eventually led engineers and physicians to work separately and to achieve wonderful progress. I prefer to describe the filth or miasma theory as the general environment theory, or the assumption that all filth can spread disease and thus all filthy places and objects (eg, air, water, food, soil, clothing, dwellings, streets, and cities) must be cleaned. To some degree, one may also argue that the general environment theory is more holistic than the germ theory of the 19th century. Although recent knowledge has demonstrated the inaccuracy of the filth theory, it provides a foundation upon which humans can implement measures of hygiene at all levels and scales (ie, individual and community, buildings and cities). The filth theory led to hygiene improvement efforts on all fronts in Europe and America and to a significant reduction in disease through various efforts, including those made by Pettenkofer. Locher summarized that, “the measures Pettenkofer recommended to combat the epidemic not only drastically reduced the risk of cholera outbreaks, but also contributed to a substantial reduction of the morbidity rate for typhoid fever”.1 Reports of many of these early works are now readily accessible online. For example, my search of Google Books and archive.org for books and articles published before 1900 with titles containing the keyword “ventilation” or “foul air” produced a long list of relevant texts. Some of these books were written by physicians with different levels of sophistication. Notably, few textbooks on building ventilation have been written by physicians since 1900. The field of building ventilation has become an engineering specialty. In fact, building ventilation design has become so specialized that it is practiced by a special group of engineers, including mechanical engineers in the Americas, building services engineers in the UK and Hong Kong, China, and HVAC engineers in mainland China. It is important to recognize that the broad view of the environment in the 18th and 19th centuries along with new discoveries in chemistry and microbiology and the development of associated research tools led to the study of many aspects of the environment, including ventilation. Pettenkofer's discovery of carbon dioxide as an indicator of indoor ventilation is a good example.2 Scientific communities often divide the world into pieces, aiming to understand one piece at a time (ie, the basic reductionism approach). Such analyses of one pathogen, one chemical, one component, or one aspect have enabled indoor air science efforts to focus on one attribute and thus pinpoint exact mechanisms and specific intervention methods. Other scientists may choose a different approach and study several or all aspects of an issue concomitantly, rather than a single aspect in a piecemeal manner. This latter approach may describe the attitude of Pettenkofer, who seemed to have preferred what is currently called a holistic approach. Pettenkofer believed that clean drinking water, pure air, good food, and a “good dwelling” were necessary for a “healthy, comfortable life.”1 According to Fang and Casadevall, “reductionism may prevent scientists from recognizing important relationships between components or organisms in their natural settings”.11 According to traditional Chinese wisdom, this concept is referred to as “treating the head when the head aches, and treating the foot when the foot hurts” (in Chinese, 頭痛醫頭、腳痛醫腳). “Holism, on the other hand, is inherently more challenging due to the complexity of living organisms in their environment”.11 Fang and Casadevall11 also cited Richard Dawkins, who said that “reductionism is one of those things, like sin, that is only mentioned by people who are against it.” As demonstrated here, reductionism and holism coexist in the history of the indoor air sciences. Indoor air is an environmental system, and studies of this system must consider many aspects, including physical, chemical, biological, psychological, behavioral, social, and architectural. Indoor air also interacts with the human body, thereby influencing human wellbeing. Effective studies in the indoor air sciences require both reductionism and holism. Currently, we are facing the challenges of the 21st century, and both holistic and reductionist approaches toward diseases and health, and specifically for the indoor air environment and health, are needed more than ever. There is an apparent need for multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research in the field, consistent with the background against which the Indoor Air journal was first established. A combined consideration of holism and reductionism can be powerful and synergistic. I recently read a paper by Wildner and Hofman,13 who further explained the dramatic germ swallowing event by Pettenkofer. Below, I have reproduced some interesting excerpts from that paper: This story led me to imagine the germ swallowing event as a nonverbal “debate” about the holistic and reductionist approaches. Although this may be an overstatement, it appears that Pettenkofer indeed preferred “broader epidemiologic considerations” and refused to accept “Robert Koch's exclusive focus on bacteriology.” I consider this to be a major difference between the two theories, or at least between the approaches and philosophies underlying the theories. As we revisit the history of indoor air science while standing on the shoulders of giants in the field, we will hopefully be able to see further, wider and deeper into the roles of indoor air environment for human health. Indoor air sciences require both breadth and depth. That we collectively incorporate both holistic and reductionist perspectives is consistent with the wisdom of the founders of the Indoor Air journal in its multidisciplinary and scientific nature. None.

The purpose of this study was to investigate changes in the cooking process of <TEX>$Bibimbab$</TEX>(cooked rice mixed with various ingredients) appeared in cook books published after Korean modern era, approximately from late 19th century to the present. 7 cook books were chosen to be analyzed. It is found that the ingredients were mixed with the rice before being served in the cook books written in late 19th century until mid 20th century, while the ingredients were separately decorated on top of the rice in the cook books written from mid 20th century until late 20th century. <TEX>$Gochujang$</TEX>(Korean chilly paste), which is common spicy seasoning for <TEX>$Bibimbab$</TEX> in the present time, appeared only in <TEX>$Hangukeumak$</TEX>(1987) which is written in late 20th century. Prior to <TEX>$Hangukeumak$</TEX>(1987), chilly powder or chilly was used for chilly-based spicy seasoning. Cook books written in late 19th century until mid 20th century, ingredients used for <TEX>$Bibimbab$</TEX> had complicated cooking methods such as <TEX>$Jeonyueo$</TEX>(assorted pan-fried delicacies), <TEX>$Nurumi$</TEX>(fried beef skewer with various vegetables) and <TEX>$Sanjeok$</TEX>(grilled beef skewer). From mid 20th century until late 20th century, among the cook books analyzed in this research, only <TEX>$Hankukyoribaekguasajeon$</TEX>(1976) suggested <TEX>$Jeonyueo$</TEX> as an ingredient, and in general, the cooking method for preparing beef became simpler. For further studies, firstly, the cooking procedures used for <TEX>$Bibimbab$</TEX> in the prior period to the Korean modern era need to be examined for more information about the changes of cooking style of <TEX>$Bibimbab$</TEX>. Secondly, new <TEX>$Bibimbab$</TEX> recipes for modern restaurants could be created by using the recipes used in the historical cook books. Finally, the definitions of culinary terms used in historical cook books need to be clarified.

This passage examines the operation and trade patterns of port cities by analyzing the area in the Gaya where foreign elements are concentrated, through the 'Port City States Theory'. To approach the ‘Port City States Theory’ archaeologically, we first defined the concept and attempted to schematize the structure of port cities. Based on this, we were able to establish the developmental stages of ports as 'port of call, trading post, port city, port citystate.‘ As can be confirmed from historical documents and archaeological evidence, the ancient Gimhae Bay area is a region where foreign elements are concentrated. Multiple port cities, not only in the central area but also in the hinterlands, are considered to be organically combined and operated as a port city-state. In the Changnyeong and Geoje regions, a distinct way of life is observed, which can be traced back to related trading posts found in the southern Honam region and the northern part of Kyushu in Japan. It can be observed that Changwon region formed a port city based on iron production, and it appears to have continued its operation even through changes in the dominant groups. In the eastern part of Honam, there is a pattern where foreign elements are concentrated within the indigenous community, indicating that this region was likely used as a trading post due to its location along the coastal routes. After examining the changing patterns of port cities in each region over different periods, it is evident that in the 1st period (from the mid-3rd century to the early 4th century), the port cities in the Gaya region, particularly in the ancient Gimhae Bay area, were developed. In the 2nd period (from the mid-4th century to later), there was an organic combination and operation of the permanent networks in the ancient Gimhae Bay area, and port cities expanded to areas like Changnyeong, Geoje, and Changwon. In the 3rd period (from before the 5th century to the middle of the 5th century), the permanent networks in the ancient Gimhae Bay area began to shrink but continued to operate, and each region also saw a reduction in its size. In the 4th period (after the 5th century), it appears that the port city-like characteristics gradually disappeared in various regions.

The compositional features were considered and the portals of the facades of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were classified. in Kyiv. Their symbolism, structure and structural construction, stylistics and characteristic architectural and decorative features were studied. The purpose of the study: to investigate and analyze the compositional, stylistic and semantic features of the portals of the facades of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. in Kyiv, to develop the principles of classification of portals and conduct their classification. Methodology. The research was conducted on the basis of the following methods: empirical, theoretical and empirical-theoretical. The empirical method includes observation, photo-fixation, graphic sketches and constructions, comparisons and generalizations. Theoretical techniques include: going from the abstract to the concrete, abstraction, concretization, identification and separation. Most of the work was carried out using empirical and theoretical methods. The results. Photographs, graphic sketches and classification of building portals of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were carried out. in Kyiv based on the developed compositional-constructive and stylistic principles of classification. It was found that the portals are located mainly on the main compositional axes of the facades of historical buildings, namely on the main vertical divisions, which are highlighted by risalites, bay windows, attics, towers and often changed scale and shape of windows. The role of the portals in the overall composition of the building and the problem of violation of the compositional integrity of the facades due to the replacement or destruction of individual parts and elements of the portals have been revealed. In particular, as a result of unsuccessful repairs and renovations in some buildings of the historical center, the entrance doors were replaced with faceless, rough, unscaled ones, which distorted not only individual facades, but also entire sections of the urban environment. The scientific novelty and practical significance of the research lies in the identification of the compositional and semantic features of the portals of the facades of Kyiv buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as in the detailed analysis of the compositional structure, constructive and stylistic components of the portals. A scientific novelty is the developed classification of the portals of the historical buildings of Kyiv. The research will contribute to the deepening of theoretical and practical knowledge about the peculiarities of Kyiv portals of the specified period, which can be used in the restoration and reconstruction of buildings of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. in Kyiv. The developed classification of portals will be a useful educational reference material for students - future architects and designers who are interested in the peculiarities of Kyiv's historical buildings.

In 2012 excavation works undertaken along the western frontage of Advocate's Close, Edinburgh revealed the remains of a 16th-century tenement, owned in turn by the Cants, Hamiltons and Raes, all burgesses or merchants of the city. The tenement remains consisted of wall foundations, cellar floor surfaces and other substantial architectural features including a turnpike stair and corbelled roof. The tenement was demolished and back-filled with rubble during the late 19th century, after which it was replaced by a formal, terraced garden. The excavations within this area revealed a series of associated midden deposits, pits and structural features located to the immediate rear of the tenement. These deposits have provided a stratified sequence of occupation ranging from the initial settlement of Edinburgh's Old Town in the 12th/13th century to the clearing and landscaping of the tenement area in the late 19th century. A large artefactual assemblage was recovered from the midden deposits, including important animal and fish bone, glass, clay pipe, tile and ceramic evidence. The ceramic assemblage included substantial amounts of imported material from England and the Continent. The consumption patterns revealed by the artefactual and ecofactual evidence appear to directly reflect the changing fortunes of post-medieval Edinburgh. The high status of many of the Close's inhabitants is illustrated throughout the expansion of the 16th and 17th centuries, as is the decline undergone during the later 17th and early 18th centuries. The stratified midden deposits at Advocate's Close reveal the changing attitudes of the Old Town inhabitants towards the issue of midden management and general waste disposal, which in turn reflects the development and growth taking place in Edinburgh during the late 16th to 19th centuries. During this period the denizens of Edinburgh moved from pursuing a peri-urban system of agriculture, in which midden material was stored, to one in which a decreasing involvement with agriculture led to a shift in favour of rapid disposal.

Coffee Culture in Dublin: A Brief History

616 Рецензии/Reviews The opening problem of the book, therefore, is the following: in order to understand the interconnectedness of Freud’s racial, gender, and professional identities, as well as what impact they had on his theory of psychoanalysis, one needs to reconstruct “the meaning of ‘race’ and its relationship to constructions of ideas of ‘gender’ at the turn of the [20th ] century” (p. xiii). Gilman embarks upon this task through a profound and fascinating analysis of the history of medical scholarship in the era of fin de siècle and in particular its appeal to the theory of the distinctiveness of races. In this context he traces the process in which the socio-medical representation of the male Jew became gradually singularized , feminized, alienated, and eventually securitized. The focus of three subsequent chapters is placed on, inter alia, the racial dimension attached to mental illness (primarily hysteria and neurosis), congenital syphilis, and cancer. The argument is not only that Jews were, for a variety of reasons, represented as more vulnerable to these diseases than other ethnic groups in Europe (p. 113), but also that associating these frightful, almost mythical ailments with a Semitic origin signified a certain disturbing racial distinctiveness, a state of disorder they brought about, or a stigmatic curse. This socio-medical image of the male Jew made him therefore an Magdalena ŻÓŁKOŚ Sander L. Gilman, Freud, Race, and Gender (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). 277 p. Index. ISBN: 0-691-02586-X. In his recent book Freud, Race, and Gender (1993), Sander L. Gilman sets off to interpret Freudian gender conceptualizations in the context of anti-Semitic inclinations in biology, medicine, and psychiatry in the late 19th and early 20th century . Having published previously on cultural and literary history, and holding positions of professor of Germanic studies and professor of psychiatry (University of Chicago), Gilman seems both professionally and linguistically competent to undertake this ambitious crossdisciplinary task. His analysis is informed by numerous other studies on Freud and his psychoanalytic theory in the fields of cultural and medical history, literary criticism, gender studies, and psychoanalysis itself. In this context, however, Gilman’s study claims to be innovative by refuting many of the common scholarly assumptions about Freudian work (especially what it regards as simplified connections between Freud’s Jewish origin and his ideas), and, more precisely, by identifying the importance of analyzing Freudian conceptualizations of gender and race in close relation to each other. 617 Ab Imperio, 3/2004 “exclusionary category” and an antithesis to theAryan race.As Gilman asserts “the Jew defined what the Aryan was not. It was that which the Aryan neither was nor ever would be. The Jew became the projection of all the anxieties about control present within the Aryan” (p. 9, emphasis in the original). One of the most interesting aspects of Gilman’s analysis here is that he presents that Semitic image-creation as an integral element of the broader transformation of modernity, namely from a religious Jewish identification to a secular one. These dichotomous racial categories, which began to dominate not only medicine and biology, but also social and political relations in Europe in the late 19th century, have important parallels in how the Church defined itself in opposition to the Jewish community as both its continuation and fulfillment. In other words, Christian identity was synonymous with accomplished (and discontinued) Jewishness, within which it was nevertheless deeply rooted both historically and spiritually. The difference is that the secularized, modern image of the Jew obliterated this intimate relationship and sense of interdependence – thus enabling the social othering of the Jew. In addition, Gilman’s book focuses in detail on different sociomedical representations of the Jewish practice of infant male circumcision , in which two elements are of crucial importance: that (i) circumcision “marked the Jewish body as unequal to that of the Aryan” and that (ii) it presented “the male Jew as the exemplary Jew” (p. 49, emphasis added). Very different meanings were attached to circumcision : symbolic, identity-giving, phallic (as an object of a ritual sacrifice ), and prophylactic (pp. 56-60); but their common denominator was the dominating social perception of stigmatic inferiority. This medical and ethno-psychological fascination...