Teaching Behavior Analysis to Pre-service Teachers in their Nonnative Language: Does Method Matter?

This chapter provides a description and examples of the use of applied behavior analysis (ABA) in the treatment of childhood psychopathology and developmental disabilities. This task is a daunting one given that many of the single topics that are discussed in the following pages can, and have, served as topics for entire chapters and texts. This limitation means we are not able to delve into each topic in a comprehensive manner. However, we do provide an overview of the important topics related to ABA and its use in the treatment of childhood psychopathology and developmental disabilities. In addition, we provide a discussion of literature-based examples for these ABA-based treatments, brief examples of generalization of treatment effects, and discussion of effectiveness. It is important to note that ABA is not a single treatment. It is more accurate to say that ABA represents an approach to treatment as opposed to a specific type of treatment. This approach includes a number of treatment strategies that can be used to address the behavioral symptoms associated with childhood psychopathology and the behavioral challenges

Applied behavior analysis is a widely used intervention for autistic youth, though its mental health impacts remain under-researched. This study aims to investigate the association between applied behavior analysis therapy and post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidality, mental health hospitalization rates, and length of mental health hospitalizations using a national database of privately insured youth under 18. We matched 17,120 autistic youth who received applied behavior analysis with a control group of autistic youth with no record of applied behavior analysis and clustered them into four applied behavior analysis dose groups using two-stage bisecting k-medians clustering. Then, we used negative binomial regression and logistic regression to compare outcomes for the applied behavior analysis and non-applied behavior analysis groups. Overall, applied behavior analysis receipt was associated with 30% higher odds of experiencing a mental health hospitalization (odds ratio = 1.30, p < 0.001) and a 32% higher incidence rate of these hospitalizations (incidence rate ratio = 1.32, p < 0.001). Our analysis found no relationship between applied behavior analysis dosing and the other tracked mental health outcomes. These results indicate the need for more quantitative analysis with more comprehensive records of applied behavior analysis receipt to fully investigate claims of ABA resulting in adverse adult mental health outcomes.Lay abstractAutistic youth often receive applied behavior analysis (ABA) therapy, but some autistic adults who had ABA as youth say it harmed their mental health as adults. We looked at the relationship between ABA and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), suicidality, mental health hospitalization rates, and length of mental health hospitalizations among autistic youth. We used private health insurance claims data to look at how ABA receipt was related to those mental health outcomes. We divided autistic youth into groups based on how much ABA they received, so we could see if different amounts of ABA had different associations with mental health. There were 17,120 autistic youth in the group that did not receive ABA, and 17,120 autistic youth in the group that did receive ABA. In this sample, ABA therapy was associated with a greater use of acute mental health services; autistic youth in the ABA group had an overall risk that was 30% higher for mental health hospitalizations; and a 32% greater frequency of mental health hospitalizations. These results suggest that there may be a relationship between mental health hospitalizations and getting ABA. However, more work is needed to fully understand the impact of ABA therapy on mental health outcomes.

Teachers' professional identity, defined as the complex of teachers' self-concept based on experiences, beliefs, values, and motives towards their profession and internalized professional roles (Chen et al., 2023; Korthagen, 2004), is a central element of teachers’ career development and largely determines their professional commitment and performance (Day et al., 2005; Mahmoudi-Gahrouei et al., 2016). Studies have shown that external factors, such as educational policies, teacher support, and parental expectations, as well as internal factors like teaching motivation and academic self-efficacy, can predict pre-service teachers' professional identity (Zhang &amp; Zhao, 2016; Zhang et al., 2017; Whiston &amp; Keller, 2004; Schepens et al., 2009). However, there is a lack of systematic research on the impact of perceived parental expectations on pre-service teachers' professional identity and its mechanisms, especially for pre-service physical education (PE) teachers in China. This study aimed to explore the chain mediating relationship among perceived parental expectations, academic self-efficacy, motivation to teach, and professional identity of pre-service PE teachers in China. The findings of this study provide valuable insights for future research to design interventions to enhance professional identity, thus increasing professional commitment and teaching performance. Method: Participants were 401 undergraduate and graduate students majoring in PE from six Chinese normal universities. Questionnaires were administered online to measure perceived parental expectations, academic self-efficacy, teaching motivation, and professional identity, as well as demographic information. Internal consistency and Pearson correlation were conducted using SPSS 26.0. Structural equation modelling was conducted to test the conceptual model using Mplus8.3. There were significant correlations among perceived parental expectations, academic self-efficacy, motivation to teach, and professional identity (p &lt; .01). The model fit indices were CFI=0.954, TLI=0.945, and RMSEA=0.072. The mediating effect of academic self-efficacy on the perceived parental expectations and professional identity relationship was not significant (95% CI [-0.002, 0.046]), whilst the mediating role of motivation to teach on the perceived parental expectations and professional identity relationship was significant (95% CI [0.054, 0.224]). The chain mediating effect of academic self-efficacy and motivation to teach on the perceived parental expectations and professional identity relationship was found to be significant (95% CI [0.021, 0.099]). Perceived parental expectations could enhance pre-service PE teachers’ professional identity by increasing pre-service PE teachers’ academic self-efficacy and motivation to teach. The improvement of pre-service teacher education and training programs and the collaboration between families and educational institutions should be well considered to enhance pre-service PE teachers’ professional identity.

Objective To compare and analyze the short-term effect of play-based communication and behavior intervention (PCBI) and applied behavioral analysis (ABA) on the treatment of toddlers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Methods Seventy-four ASD toddlers aged from 19 to 30 months were recruited in Nanjing Brain Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University from November 2017 to May 2018.The toddlers who participated in this study were randomly assigned into PCBI group and ABA group, then they were intervened weekly by PCBI or ABA for a total of 12 weeks.Portage Early Development Checklist and autism treatment evaluation checklist (ATEC) were used to estimate the toddlers′ developmental level and the treatment efficacy respectively.The t-test was used to reveal whether there was significant difference between the 2 groups before and after intervention. Results (1)Compared with the ABA group, there was a significant increase in cognitive scores (ΔPCBI=9.03 scores, ΔABA=4.27 scores, t=3.997) and a significant decrease in social behavior scores (ΔPCBI=8.87 scores, ΔABA=16.91 scores, t=-4.022) of the Portage Early Development Checklist after 12 weeks of intervention in the PCBI group, and there were statistically significant differences(all P 0.05). (2)Compared with the ABA group, after 12 weeks of PCBI intervention, the scores of social contact, perception, behavior of ATEC were decreased, but the difference was not significant (P>0.05); the total score of ATEC scale(ΔPCBI total=14.89 scores, ΔABA total=22.22 scores, t=2.209)and the scores of language subscale(ΔPCBI language=2.89 scores, ΔABA language=6.43 scores, t=2.515)were decreased significantly, and there were statistically significant differences (all P<0.05). Conclusions After 12 weeks of the very early intervention of PCBI, the ASD toddlers all improved in clinical symptoms and developmental level.Compared with ABA intervention, PCBI very early intervention with parental guidance was comparable in short term efficacy, and PCBI was not taking up as much medical rehabilitation resources as ABA. Key words: Autism spectrum disorder; Toddler; Very early intervention; Play-based communication behavior intervention; Efficacy evaluation

Global Assessment Use and Practices in Applied Behavior Analysis: Surveying the Field

The Pennsylvania Department of Education addressed the need for a competency-based program for trained staff in applied behavior analysis by initiating the credentialing process in behavior analysis. As a result, the development of a training program designed around Functional Behavioral Assessment in public school settings has emerged. A practical tool for school teams, the Functional Behavioral Assessment Worksheet, has been developed using Applied Behavior Analysis principles and procedures. Educational consultants at the Central Instructional Support Center have developed the tool and are currently training Intermediate Unit staff, school district staff, and individual IEP teams in the use of the worksheet within effective behavior assessment procedures and educational programming. The worksheet describes the rationale for functional behavioral assessment and includes an explanation of IDEA requirements for completion of the assessment process for disciplinary changes in placement. The worksheet contains a team interview section, a section on direct observation with data analysis, and a summary section that includes hypothesis formulation. The step-by-step process provides a procedural framework that ensures that the team will conduct systematic and effective assessment. Use of this tool guarantees that teams focus on data collection and analysis and base their decisions on this information. This is a more scientific approach than the sole reliance on informant methods currently in use in public school settings. The worksheet appears below. Appendix A and Appendix B consist of basic data collection materials. For copies of the complete Functional Behavioral Assessment Worksheet, please contact the Central Instructional Support Center. Functional Behavioral Assessment Worksheet Purpose Individualized Functional Behavioral Assessment is typically used only in instances where behavior interferes significantly with the student's learning or that of his/her peers. Effective classroom management approaches embedded within effective instructional design and delivery appropriately address the majority of behavioral issues occurring in classrooms. Process A functional behavioral assessment is a process consisting of information-gathering procedures that result in a hypothesis about the function(s) that the behavior is serving for the student as well as ecological events and the consequences that are maintaining the behavior. First, information must be gathered indirectly through interview(s) of person(s) who has observed the behavior of the student for an extended period of time in a variety of settings and conditions. The purpose of the interview(s) is to review a large number of potential variables and narrow the focus to those variables that are of particular importance to the individual. Information must also be gathered through direct observation of the behavior across settings and times with consideration of a variety of other environmental factors (i.e. other persons present, task demands, changing conditions). Information that was gathered during the interview portion of the functional behavioral assessment is used to narrow the focus of data collection during direct observations. A graphic analysis of the data collected during direct observations together with the interview information results in the following: 1. Development of a specific, clear, description of the behavior of concern 2. Identification of the physical and environmental factors that correspond with occurrences of the behavior 3. Identification of the potential function of the behavior in terms of its maintaining consequences. This information then serves as the basis for the development of a Behavior Intervention Plan that manipulates environmental factors and consequences while providing instruction in the acquisition of new, more appropriate behaviors. …

Behavior analysis is the underclass of psychology. It is under-funded, under-taught, and underappreciated. A lot is happening that is positive, but just beneath the surface, there are grave dangers lurking that could significantly worsen our already poor status. I prefer to believe that most of these dangers are things we can control by our own behavior (itself a rather behavioral idea), and I offer this list of dangers in that spirit. As someone once said: if you always do what you always did, you'll always get what you always got. Behavior analysts need to appreciate the following six dangers and adapt to them. LOSS OF MISSION Behavior analysis was initially strategically committed to the field of animal learning, but from the beginning its ultimate purpose was an understanding of complex human behavior: importance of a science of behavior derives largely from the possibility of an eventual extension to human affairs (Skinner, Behavior of Organisms, 1938, p. 441). In the early decades that was merely a promise, but the arrival of applied behavior analysis turned it into a program. Over the years, however, both basic and applied behavior analysis have narrowed and that original vision is being lost. Applied behavior analysis is gradually becoming a subfield of developmental disabilities, as a glance at a recent issue of JABA will confirm. The depth of the risk this creates is covered over by methodological rigor and applied impact within that narrow domain. Basic behavior analysis clings largely to narrow and precise questions of self-stimulatory interest in the animal laboratory, even while animal laboratories are being closed one by one, and areas of research within behavior analysis are being opened up that require human research. The depth of the problem is covered over by the productivity of a few major behavioral laboratories and the emergence of a handful of international labs, where protection from political winds have allowed the old seeds to grow a few new sprouts. In some ways, all of the other dangers I list can be traced back to the following core concern. Behavior analysis was always a carom shot. Instead of approaching human complexity directly, it tried to develop conceptual tools based on simple behaviors in simple contexts with small non-human animals, and then to apply these to an analysis of virtually every form of complex human behavior. It was a bold and even slightly preposterous idea, and yet it was one that worked far beyond what anyone had a right to expect. Now, however, we seem to be on the verge of forgetting what the mission was in the first place. Many basic behavior analysts have begun to believe that basic behavior analysis is a subfield of animal learning or (perhaps worse) behavioral biology. Where are the experimental analyses of emotion, friendship, sexuality, health, reasoning, humor, intelligence, and so on? Interpretation is not enough--we need an experimental analysis of such behaviors. Without the basic account, applied behavior analysts either ignore these areas or build common sense approaches to them. TOOL POLISHING No field so enjoys principles as does behavior analysis. Principles of behavior are ways of speaking about the prediction and influence of the historically and currently situated actions of organisms that are precise, broadly applicable, and coherent in terms of the larger fabric of science. Principles are the intellectual tools of analysis. They are not, however, ends in themselves. Sometimes behavior analysts are like the watchmakers who decided to make a set of extremely fine tools before actually making some complicated new watches. Forgetting what the tools were for, the talented watchmakers did not build the watches and display them in a glass cabinet, but instead put the tools themselves in that cabinet, taking them out only to polish them and to show how they work. Basic behavior analysts are especially prone to this error. …

This study explores the application of Vygotsky&amp;rsquo;s zone of proximal development in pre-service teacher training by investigating the effectiveness of ZPTD in lesson plan design. A qualitative research approach has been utilized to gather and analyze both versions of a lesson plan designed by a pre-service teacher (the researcher). The revised lesson plan, with appropriate scaffolding from the instructor and suitable advice from peers, is more balanced and better developed when compared to the original version that created by the pre-service teacher alone. In comparison to effects of microteaching, students show increased engagement and motivation in the modified lesson plan implementation, indicating that the pre-service teacher has reached the potential level in lesson plan design with the help of the instructor&amp;rsquo;s scaffolding. By bridging the gap between the pre-service teacher&amp;rsquo;s current and potential level of designing a lesson plan, this study shows that ZPTD can be applied in pre-service teacher training on lesson plan design.

Language teacher educators train pre-service teachers in numerous theories and pedagogical practices of language learning and language teaching. They expect that their student teachers will translate this conceptual and practical knowledge into action during their practicum. However, in the process of determining pre-service teachers’ readiness for the field experience and the profession in general, methods classes measure only their conceptual knowledge and omit looking at their student teachers’ belief system about language teaching and learning. This belief system is a strong indicator of how the students organize their knowledge for application (Borg, 2003) and may help teacher educators gauge students’ read ness in the use of new pedagogies that these pre-service teachers may not have experienced before. Using two reflective essays and a piece of authentic assessment as instruments to gather data, as well as Jürgen Habermas’s theory on cognitive interests as a framework to explore the espoused beliefs of nine pre-service language teachers at the end of a methodscourse, this qualitative study addressed the following questions: What levels of cognitive interests do the nine pre-service world language and ESL teachers exhibit prior to student teaching? To what extent do the students’ levels of cognitive interests change during the methods course called Teaching a Second Language? What are the most common cognitive interests regarding such areas of teaching performance, such as methodology and assessment among the participants? The results show that the nine pre-service teachers held mostly technicaland some practical cognitive interests at the beginning of the semester. In the end, most of the participants held practical interests, and three out of the nine pre-service teachers held elementary emancipatory beliefs. One pedagogical recommendation is to include experiences in the training of pre-service teachers that promote emancipatory beliefs that could support teachers in their pursuit of transforming challenging social conditions while examining and adopting new pedagogies.

The emergence of positive behav-ior support (PBS) has presented somechallenges and opportunities for ap-plied behavior analysis. In a recentreview and critique of positive behav-ior support, Johnston, Foxx, Jacob-son, Green, and Mulick (2006) ac-knowledge that the success of PBS ingarnering support in schools, agen-cies that service individuals with de-velopmental disabilities, and stateand federal agencies, and suggestsome behaviors to be emulated byapplied behavior analysis in order togarner similar support. However,they recommend that PBS shouldnot be embraced by behavior analystsbecause it poses a threat to the fieldand is less effective than appliedbehavior analysis. Before this recom-mendation is embraced by behavioranalysts, it is important to considerthe ramifications of a split betweenPBS and behavior analysis, particu-larly given that PBS has its origins inbehavior analysis and is conceptual-ized by prominent adherents of thePBS model to be a type of orextension of applied behavior analy-sis (Dunlap, 2006; Horner, 2000). Ipropose that PBS should not bedismissed but should be viewed asan opportunity by the field of appliedbehavior analysis to reach its goal oflarge-scale adoption. A continuedstrong relation between PBS andbehavior analysis may actually ac-complish the broadest disseminationand adoption of effective behavioraltechnology. It will also benefit PBSby keeping it grounded in the con-ceptual system that fostered its de-velopment.PBS is clearly still in its formativestages; in fact the executive board ofthe Association for Positive BehaviorSupport currently is working to de-velop a comprehensive definition ofPBS and to define the roles for theorganization (C. Anderson, personalcommunication, November 2, 2006).As is true in any organization—eventhe Association for Behavior Analy-sis—different members may espousedifferent perspectives on issues suchas the relation between PBS andother perspectives, training models,and so on. This in itself has been thesource of many challenges, and per-haps misunderstandings, for those inthe behavior analysis community.For example, Johnston et al. (2006)emphasize the negative views of PBSresearchers toward behavior analysis.However, many leaders, trainers, andresearchers in PBS have a favorableview of behavior analysis, considerthemselves to be behavior analysts,and continue to publish in behavioraljournals such as the Journal ofApplied Behavior Analysis and TheBehavior Analyst. Thus, although thissituation has been viewed pessimisti-cally by Johnston et al., I believe thatthere are significant grounds forhaving an optimistic view about thefuture relation between PBS andapplied behavior analysis. BecausePBS is in its formative stages and isrooted in behavior analysis, the field

Social constructivism is a learning approach in which students actively construct their own knowledge by way of experiences and interactions with others. As such, it is important to highlight both individual and group-based reflection practices in pre-service teacher training as a key aspect for improving teaching practice. This paper presents the results of the design and implementation of a training programme of 7 sessions (8.5 h of class participation plus 25 h of personal homework) for pre-service secondary school science teachers, who were asked to design a gamification resource and an e-rubric to evaluate it. Subsequent improvement of this e-rubric was enhanced by performing different reflection activities at key moments. The programme was carried out by 50 Spanish pre-service teachers from Málaga (Spain). Data collection centred on the e-rubrics designed, the emotions experienced and the possible transfer to real-life practice performed six months later. The impact of reflections on the evaluation was studied by analysing the evolution of the categories proposed by the participants for the e-rubric at different times, with marked changes being found during design and preparation of the gamification resource, and only very minor changes post-implementation. In addition, a group-based criteria consensus session favoured a more in-depth reflection. Interest was the main emotion experienced by pre-service teachers, especially during preparation and use of the resource. The programme also had a marked impact on transfer of the e-rubric into practice, as did the designed resource, although to a lesser extent.

This paper examined the contemporary teacher training and professional development in Nigeria as an example of the experiences in developing countries of the world. Against the background of the ascendancy of information and communications technologies in all aspects of human life this study attempted to situate the concept of Information and Communication technology at the centre of the pre-service training and continuing professional development of the Nigerian teacher. A review of some of the major challenges confronting the nation in terms of adopting a technology driven teacher education model was carried out. It also explored the potentials of ICTs for and in teachers’ professional development in Nigeria and developing countries of the world. Consequently, proposing a model of a sustainable teacher training and professional development for Nigeria and other developing countries, within the functional framework of the Information and Communication Technologies was developed to indicate how ICTs could be gradually introduced into the school systems. The study conclude by further highlighting the benefits that Nigeria and other developing countries stand to gain by adopting an ICT driven approach for the pre-service and in-service training and professional development of teachers.

Applied behavior analysis is known as an effective way to address the needs of people with autism spectrum disorders. The layperson may also associate behavior analysis with forensic psychology through their experience of crime dramas such as Criminal Minds: Behavior Analysis Unit. However accurate or simplified these portrayals they are a very narrow view of the larger field of behavioral science. Behavior analysis has a host of applications in the real world. Some of these applications include but are certainly not limited to the determination of social policies, advertising, policing, animal training, business practices, diet and exercise regimens and education. In this chapter the authors will focus on how applied behavior analysis can be used as a teaching technology from the behavioral and educational literature that has the potential to help lead the way out of the educational crisis faced in the United States of America and abroad.

A plethora of researchers have attempted to examine the characteristics of a good and effective teacher in order to enhance the process of teaching foreign languages. In line with those explorations, this study aims at performing a comparison between Slovak pre-service EFL (English as a foreign language) teachers’ and Slovak in-service EFL teachers’ perceptions of a good and effective language teacher. To achieve this objective, a convenient sample of Slovak university EFL students who were pre-service teachers (n = 74) and Slovak lower-secondary and upper-secondary school teachers (n = 63) were employed in the study. Using a 57-item Likert-type questionnaire, independent-samples t-tests were conducted to investigate the potential differences between the perceptions of the pre-service teachers and in-service teachers. Moreover, the 10 highest-mean and 10 lowest-mean items of both groups were analyzed. The research results revealed that statistically significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were detected in only 12 of the 57 items. Furthermore, a closer examination of the differences and the items with the highest and lowest means indicated that the pre-service teacher participants favored traditional teaching more than their in-service teacher counterparts, who preferred CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) to a greater extent. The potential implications of these findings indicate that the fundamental principles of CLT such as employing plenty of pair-work and group-work activities, facilitating learners’ autonomy and responsibility for their own learning, or varying classroom interaction strategies deserve more careful attention during pre-service teacher training.

Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) reduces challenging behaviour in people with intellectual disability. There is interest, however, in whether such interventions reduce carer burden and increase community participation in this group. A 6-month randomised controlled trial was followed by a longer-term naturalistic follow-up of participants. We studied the impact of the challenging behaviour on the carers and on the daily activities of the participants measured by the Carer Uplift and Burden Scale and Guernsey Community Participation and Leisure Assessment respectively. Both community participation and carer burden improved at 6 and 24 months. Burden showed significant reduction in family carers compared with paid carers. There was no significant intervention effect on the variables under consideration. ABA appears to be no more effective than standard care in improving social outcomes in people with intellectual disabilities and challenging behaviour but this requires further examination in a larger trial.