The L3 syntax–discourse interface

Second language learning outcomes are highly variable, due to a variety of factors, including individual differences, exposure conditions, and linguistic complexity. However, exactly how these factors interact to influence language learning is unknown. This paper examines the relationship between these three variables in language learners. Native English speakers were exposed to an artificial language containing three sentence patterns of varying linguistic complexity. They were randomly assigned to two groups – incidental and instructed – designed to promote the acquisition of implicit and explicit knowledge, respectively. Learning was assessed with a grammaticality judgment task, while subjective measures of awareness were used to measure whether exposure had resulted in implicit or explicit knowledge. Participants also completed cognitive tests. Awareness measures demonstrated that learners in the incidental group relied more on implicit knowledge, whereas learners in the instructed group relied more on explicit knowledge. Overall, exposure condition was the most significant predictor of performance on the grammaticality judgment task, with learners in the instructed group outperforming those in the incidental group. Performance on a procedural learning task accounted for additional variance. When outcomes were analysed according to linguistic complexity, exposure condition was the most significant predictor for two syntactic patterns, but it was not a predictor for the most complex sentence group; instead, procedural learning ability was.

The purpose of this study is to explore how English language learners' (ELLs) consultation of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries could influence their second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition. Although research has empirically indicated that dictionary use could possibly affect learners' second language acquisition (SLA) in various ways, inconclusive results can still be found pertaining to ELLs' L2 vocabulary acquisition based on their dictionary use. In order to bridge this gap, sixty-four ELLs were recruited and divided into two groups for this experimental study. Through both quantitative and qualitative analyses, the researcher examined how the consultation of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries could influence L2 lexical teaching and learning utilizing a 13,944-word lemmatized High Frequency Word List (HFWL) from the British National Corpus (BNC). The findings suggest that the consultation of monolingual dictionaries promoted students' L2 vocabulary acquisition, learning interest, confidence and positive attitude more effectively than that of bilingual dictionaries. Learners were also revealed to be cognizant of the salience of L2 exposure that monolingual dictionaries possess for reifying their L2 awareness and lexical development in an authentic fashion. Based on the outcomes yielded from this investigation, pedagogical and theoretical implications are discussed.

Learning and speaking foreign languages are regarded today as the norm. Simultaneously, empirical findings in the area of multilingualism have recently demonstrated that the mental lexicon of a language learner consists of intertwined systems where languages interact with each other, rather than remain separate entities. However, studies that explore how different lexicons are integrated and influence each other in the case of multilinguals are relatively scarce. This thesis seeks to contribute to this gap in research reporting two empirical studies drawing on a vocabulary testing perspective. The studies investigate the impact of prior lexical knowledge on additional language learning of Hungarian native speakers, who speak Romanian as an L2 and English as an L3. From a theoretical standpoint, the studies contest the traditional assumption that foreign language vocabulary acquisition can be explained solely by measures of frequency of word occurrence. Instead is contended that cross-linguistic similarities, namely cognates, provide a special bridge between languages and also need to be taken into account. At a more substantive level, it aims to explore (1) the relationship between learners’ Romanian and English written lexical knowledge; (2) the facilitatory effect of cognates; and (3) the implications of this for vocabulary assessments. To address these aims, Romanian versions of Nation’s Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) and Vocabulary Size Test (VST) have been developed, assessed for validity, and applied. The findings indicate that there is a strong connection between multilinguals’ Romanian L2 and English L3 lexica. Learners’ lexical proficiency can be described as a function of frequency but is also influenced by cognateness. Therefore, word frequency and cognateness in conjunction can potentially increase test accuracy and validity, and enable a more in-depth understanding of vocabulary size and lexical accessibility. These conclusions are drawn from a vocabulary testing perspective, but further pedagogical implications, future directions for research and limitations are also offered.

One of the important objectives of computer science (programming) education is to develop fundamental proficiency in the area of computer programming. Knowledge of programming is so important that almost all computer science programs include it in their curriculum. This important subject is widely reported as being challenging for novices especially in the very beginning early lessons. Study on bilingual language instructions shows that use of native language instructions help students to understand the subject better and use of secondary language instructions increase their social context of choice. When a learner learns through a language other than the mother tongue, learner faces problems because his task becomes two-fold. The first is that the learner has to make sense of the instructional tasks, which are presented in the second language or an interactive manner, and the second is Learner has to get linguistic competence that is required for effective learning to take place.

Objective To observe activated cerebral areas during the task of writing in second language by early and late acquisition bilinguals and explore the neuropsychological mechanism. Methods Twelve subjects were divided into group of early acquisition high proficiency bilinguals(EAHP) and group of late acquisition high proficiency bilinguals(LAHP). Each subject carried out the task of pseudo-writing and English writing. After functional imaging,statistical parametric mapping was used to compare data of the two tasks through paired- t test in both two groups. A conjunction analysis was conducted between the two groups also. Areas where the metabolism of glucose changed were analyzed. Then, the corresponding images about activated cerebral regions were obtained.Results Cerebral areas where the metabolism of glucose increased in EAHP: bilateral middle frontal gyrus( Z=4.35/2. 01 ), bilateral cerebellum ( Z = 2.97/2.53 ) and left head of caudate nucleus ( Z = 3.07 ), etc. Cerebral areas where the metabolism of glucose increased in LAHP: right superior frontal gyrus(Z=4.06), right cerebellum( Z=4.63), left putamen(Z=2.70) ,etc. Cerebral areas where the metabolism of glucose increased in compared data of LAHP with data of EAHP: right frontal gyrus ( Z = 2.92 ), right temporal lobe( Z = 2.31 ), etc. Conclusion Extensive cerebral cortex and subcortical structures participate the process of writing in the second language. Age of bilingual acquisition is one of the factors affecting cerebral localization of writing in second language. Key words: Second language; Writing; Bilingual; Localization

Abstract—The potential ways in which learning a second or third language can influence other languages in the mind of the (emergent) bilingual is an increasingly important issue given the international importance of foreign language learning. This study explored whether learning French as a foreign language influences knowledge of English morphosyntax in learners of L2 French with L1 English (n=21) and learners of L3 French with L2 English (n=9). Comparing these two groups allowed us to identify whether and to what extent backwards cross linguistic influence (CLI) are different depending on whether French is L2 or L3, and whether English is L1 or L2. Accuracy on tense-aspects of English morphosyntax was measured through two tasks (Grammaticality Judgement and Proofreading). Results indicated no inhibitive influence from L2 French to L1 English, with potential enhancement of explicit knowledge when compared to a control group of English-speaking participants with no French. In contrast, influence leading to inaccuracy was observed from L3 French to L2 English in that the L3 French learners made more errors in past simple and present perfect in the GJT. Results are discussed in the context of better understanding the nature of developing grammatical systems, together with implications for future work.

The applications of using Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication (SCMC) tools, known as real time text-message exchange software such as MSN Messenger, chat rooms, etc., in second language learning classrooms have been examined by numbers of researchers in the past few decades (e.g. Beauvois, 1992, 1998; Chun, 1994; Kern, 1995; Lai & Zhao, 2006; Sykes, 2005; Vandergriff, 2006). Motivated by an interest in the transferability from actually “typing” to “speaking” brought up by Abrams (2003), and the strong recommendations of using online discussion as a “stepping stone” in communication, the present study examined oral production in terms of accuracy, lexical complexity, syntactic complexity, and fluency under two modes of discussions in an EFL freshman English course. Subjects were 20 English-major students enrolled in a required university Freshman English class in an Asian EFL context. Data were collected under two modes: Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication (SCMC) and Face-to-Face (FTF). Under each mode, students participated in two activities: (1) preparation discussions for an informal debate, and (2) discussions of issues after video watching. Each discussion lasted for ten minutes and was followed by an immediate FTF oral discussion. In FTF discussions, the audio was recorded and transcribed for further analysis. Meanwhile, the discussions in the SCMC context were collected as chat logs. All the collected data were divided into four parts: (1) discourse in traditional face-to-face discussion and (2) its follow-up discussion; (3) discourse in the SCMC context and (4) its follow-up oral discussion. The results revealed significant differences among all variables in comparing the language outputs in SCMC and FTF discussions. In fact, language outputs in SCMC exceeded the outputs in FTF in almost every aspect. The findings revealed lower error rate, fewer dysfluent markers, and higher percentages of using more sophisticated words in SCMC. Only the complexity of syntactic structures was greater in FTF. We also found positive effects of language production on all variables in FTF discussion activities; however, only fluency showed significant improvement. In terms of transferability from SCMC to oral proficiency, none of the variables showed significant effects on its immediate follow-up oral discussion. Ironically, the differences between SCMC and its follow-up FTF discussion were all significant except for syntactic complexity. This finding indicated that learners were not able to carry the “refined” utterances in SCMC over to oral discussion, or they just inevitably made the same mistakes when the communication channel switched back to normal FTF. Finally, we compared the effects of practicing in FTF modality and the effects of practicing in SCMC modality. The findings indicated that learners can produce more fluent and more complex utterances orally by practicing in FTF all the way through, while accuracy and lexical complexity can be increased by practicing in the SCMC environment. In conclusion, transferability can only be found partially in terms of accuracy and lexical complexity. Though the effects of practicing through SCMC with the aim of improving oral proficiency did not differ significantly from traditional face-to-face practices, it still shed some light on the potential benefits of text-based communication. With less time pressure through chatting in SCMC, learners were encouraged to retrieve from their long term memories and use less frequent words so that the vocabulary which was retrieved could easily be used again in later speaking activities.

Clitic Reduplication in Bulgarian Revisited The paper discusses the reduplication of direct and indirect objects with a clitic pronoun in modern Bulgarian. It is argued that the so-called Clitic Doubling, as traditional grammar labels it, is not a unitary phenomenon. Instead, there exist 5 different constructions with well-defined syntactic and pragmatic properties: (1) as for Topic; (2) Hanging Topic o Nominativus pendens; (2) Clitic Left Dislocation; (4) Clitic Right Dislocation, and (5) Clitic Doubling proper. These constructions need to be carefully distinguished in order to be able to better understand the very nature of the reduplication phenomena in Bulgarian, as well as in the other languages which possess the same or similar types of structures.

This study examined the influence of semantic and phonological priming on L2 speech planning, as well as the difference between native and non-native speakers of English in terms of lemma activation. Two potential explanations for the contrast between the performance of L2 speakers and native controls were considered. The first of which was that L2 speakers’ phonological forms are activated before selection of syntactic frame occurred, whereas the reverse is true for native speakers. The second explanation posits that the organisation of the speech production procedure is fundamentally similar in native and L2 speakers, and the disparity in performance arises from difference in the levels of activation of stored items. The results of the present experiment suggest that lemma selection is indeed what drives syntactic frame selection. However, lemmas in L2 speakers can be primed through a chain of connections demonstrated as: L2 phonological form → L1 phonological form → L1 lemma.

For a language beginner there are many methods of attaining the goal of learning a second or foreign language, one of the most useful ones of which is to make a comparison in sentence structure between one's own native tongue and a second or foreign language. A learner will find out that there are some differences and similarities between the two languages by means of comparison, through which he/she will feel learning a foreign language is not so difficult as he/she imagines and give birth to a strong desire to learn a foreign language. For a Chinese speaker who is learning English as a foreign language, she/he may make great strides in English through the comparison of sentence structure between the two languages. On the other hand, this way can help the English speakers not only better understand but feel more at ease in Chinese learning as well. The overall purpose of this study is to seek to compare Chinese to English in basic sentence structure, including inflections, problems in subject-verb agreement, etc., to guide both the English beginners to take interest in English and the English speakers feel an interest in Chinese, and to facilitate successfully acquiring their aim of learning a second or foreign language.

Recognizing the pragmatic nature of prosody, research on speech act production has developed over time with much attention given to yes/no and wh-questions. Prosodic patterns of refusals, however, have received less attention when compared to other speech acts although their appropriate production is critical in conveying politeness. Furthermore, comparisons of speech act production have often been between English native speakers (NSs) and non-native speakers (NNSs). The current work responds to these gaps through a comparison of prosodic patterns of refusals across three groups: English NSs (n = 17), NNSs (n = 10), and bilinguals (BLs) (n = 7). High- and low- imposition refusals were recorded from spoken discourse completion tasks. Prosodic analyses (temporal fluency, prominence, and intonation) were performed across the speaker groups. In low-imposition refusals, NNSs had more pause time than NS and BLs, and they also had a slower articulation rate than BLs. BLs used fewer rising tones than both NSs and NNSs. In high-imposition refusals, NNSs used more prominence than NSs, while BLs used fewer falling tones than NNSs. While these findings concur with current research on differences between NSs and NNSs, they add new subtleties on how BLs use prosody when compared with these groups

Language learning involves not only acquiring the linguistic forms and structures but understanding how language is used appropriately in different socio-cultural contexts. It is believed teaching of speech acts can help foreign language learners enhance their competence in language use and enable them to communicate with native speakers successfully (Hymes, 1974; Searle, 1969; Wolfson, 1989; Yu, 1999). In the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context, English textbooks play an important role for those students who receive their language inputs primarily from textbooks (Kim & Hall, 2002). Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the appropriateness of speech act presentation in the elementary English textbooks with respect to English language instruction in Taiwan. Two adjacency pairs of speech acts (compliments/compliment responses and requests/request responses) in seven series of elementary English textbooks were scrutinized to see whether adequate information regarding these two speech act pairs was properly delineated. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore elementary school English teachers' awareness of cultural-specificity in language use. The findings show that compliments, compliment responses, requests and request responses were not adequately presented in the elementary school English textbooks. The speech act presentation in the textbook did not mirror precisely the native English speakers' interaction norms and seemed to inaccurately represent the actual language use. Results from teacher interviews indicate that English teachers did not seem to equip themselves with sufficient and adequate knowledge of cultural-specificity in language use, which may be adverse for language learners. These findings suggest that textbook designers properly integrate speech acts into elementary school English instruction, and teachers further develop professional knowledge in pragmatics to facilitate their English teaching to elementary school children.

Lateral thinking is a unique form of thinking proposed by Edward De Bono. He believes that innovation is the ability to see the changes as an opportunity not as a threat. It results in the generation of new ideas and breaking out of the concept prisons of old ideas. This type of thinking decides the outcome of one's speaking and the job of lateral thinking is to enable the brain to find multiple possibilities or perceptions. The attitude of the present set of tertiary learners, lack of confidence and positive approach, their habits hinder their brain to intake, create and present the information in the demanding context. The major reasons for their inability are the cultural and psychological background of the learners. Developing lateral thinking skills of the tertiary level learners may pave the way to keep a constructive mind to acquire new language competencies. 'Think out of the box' is the crucial motto of the language teachers these days. De Bono's concept of Lateral thinking would enable the language teachers to break a new ground in inculcating speaking skills for the learners of English as a second language. The present study proposes Design , one of the lateral thinking techniques of Bono and its effectiveness as a tool that can be adapted by the language teachers to enrich the communicative competence of the tertiary level learners of English as a second language. The criteria for speaking activity are assessed based on stage III of Canadian Language Benchmark for assessing speaking skills.

İkinci dil olarak Türkçe ve Japonca’da çalkalamanın edinimi

Focusing on two types of corrective feedback strategies in second language classrooms, namely recasts and prompts, the current paper claims that the comparative effectiveness of recasts and prompts is an area of great research value, for the following reasons: (1) theoretically, studies in this area can inform the issues such as the roles of input and output in second language learning and the cognitive roles of recasts and prompts in language learning; (2) pedagogically, research findings in this area may provide second language teachers with useful advice concerning their classroom error correction. Based on a critical review of existing research findings, two distinct research gaps are discussed: (1) the effect of recasts and prompts in promoting the learning of new linguistic features has rarely been explored and awaits future research attention; (2) the effect of recasts and prompts has rarely been examined from learners’ own perspectives and more studies in this direction are needed.