The Soviet Banya and the Mass Production of Hygiene

This chapter examines how the Soviet Union strove to acquire American mass production technology in order to create their own version of Fordism in the 1930s. It traces the origin and operation of one of the prestigious objects of the First Five-Year Plan: the automobile factory at Nizhnii Novgorod. After 1933, when the city changed names in honor of its scion Maxim Gorky, the Soviet River Rouge went by the official name of Gaz (Gor'kovskii Avtomobil'nyi Zavod); but to the Soviet press, it was known simply as the “Auto Giant.” The chapter then follows four men who helped the Auto Giant awaken and rise. Economist Nikolai Osinskii pushed through an ambitious agenda for Soviet motorization that culminated in the foreign technical assistance contract with the Ford Motor Company of May 1929. In fulfillment of this agreement, Stepan Dybets traveled to Detroit and led a group of Soviet engineers who were in charge of transferring Ford technology and know-how from the Midwest to central Russia during the years of the First Five-Year Plan. Meanwhile, as director of Gaz between 1932 and 1938, Sergei D'iakonov oversaw the uneven and troubled implementation of Fordism during the Second Five-Year Plan. Finally, Ivan Loskutov ascended to the helm of Gaz after Stalin's purges, and presided over the factory's redoubled embrace of Fordism in the late 1930s and World War II.

In the context of the publication of the National Action Plan for Scientific Literacy (2021–2035) and the 14th Five-Year Plan for the Development of the Modern Science and Technology Museum System (2021–2025), and based on a review of the history and characteristics of various science popularization venues, this paper analyses the mission of those venues in advocating scientific methods, disseminating scientific ideas and promoting the scientific spirit and the scientist spirit. It discusses the requirements for science popularization venues to strengthen scientific culture. Finally, the paper provides suggestions for fulfilling the guiding role of scientific culture through promoting the modern science and technology museum system, including enhancing strategic awareness, strengthening academic research and breaking disciplinary barriers.

Modern technology has become an essential component of daily life for humans. As a result, the outcomes fall under the category of business technology advancement, which drives company advancement across all industries. Maintaining the industry and market requires undergoing technical advancement. This essay focuses on the technological evolution of the textile industry since its inception. The Tirupur District of Tamil Nadu State in India, which provides less than 1% of the global textile industry, has yielded about 60 statistics. Primarily focuses on the connection between technical advancement and the aspirations people have for prospective industrial advancement. It is crucial to consider all factors while upgrading since the nation's consistent economic growth is necessary to go in the right direction of the economic growth route. Upgrading the technology in the earlier stage will give us the opportunity to capture the market share. Early adopters are always playing various roles in market share in the competitive world.

Economic growth accelerated after the Second World War when per capita income growth accelerated to 2.9 percent per annum from 1950–89 compared with only 1.3 percent 1870–1950. Even without taking account of the benefits of increased leisure, social security, and improved health and social services, this acceleration in economic growth was a remarkable achievement. Although rapid growth has not been restricted to Europe, advocates of unrestricted free trade have credited the European Economic Community with raising European growth rates. Europe's slow recovery after the First World War had persuaded many that the existing national borders contained markets too small to realize gains from mass production and modern technologies. Repeating views popular among socialist critics of European capitalism, advocates of economic integration argued that Europe's businesses needed a larger scope to compete with continental powers like the US and the Soviet Union (Griffuelhes, 1910; Landes, 1949; Lorwin, 1958). Economic integration, it was hoped, would give Europe's relatively small states the wider scale they needed to compete with businesses from continental-sized countries. Business productivity would bring in its wake prosperity, peace, and the political influence that comes with economic success.KeywordsGross Domestic ProductUnemployment RateMonetary PolicyComparative AdvantageEfficiency GainThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

As part of the far reaching educational reform that is to be implemented in the Soviet Union during the years of the Twelfth Five-Year Plan (1986-1990), the introduction into secondary education of a course called "Basic Information Science and Computer Technology" stands out among the reform measures as one that is receiving special emphasis in the country's press as well as special attention in the school system. The overall goal of the educational reform is to tie schooling more closely to the needs of the national economy, to produce well-educated and effectively trained manpower to fuel a recovery of its sagging output. The teaching of computer literacy was written into the official state documents that initiated the reform; the April 1984 "Fundamental Directions of General Education and Vocational School Reform" cited the need to "… equip [all secondary school] pupils with the knowledge and skills necessary to make use of modern computer technology…" and envisioned the introduction of computers "… into the educational process on a broad scale, setting up special school and inter-school computer centers for this purpose."

Chapter 8 draws the web of relations between Egypt’s antiquity, empire, modernity, and internationalism from the outbreak of the First World War to decolonization. It focuses on the era between Britain’s unilateral granting of formal independence to Egypt in 1922 and the Anglo-Egyptian Agreement of 1936, and sets the imperial preoccupation with ancient Egypt in national and international contexts. The chapter fills a lacuna in the historiography of Egyptology and Egyptomania which has focused on the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922 and has largely overlooked the internationalist angles of the interwar obsession with ancient Egypt. The chapter maps the expansion of interest in Egypt beyond the pharaonic past and considers its extension to prehistoric Egypt. It relates Egyptology to the modernization of travel and speed technologies, and to popular representations of Egypt as a centre of globalized travel in a connective empire. The chapter further considers the roles of the global media in mediating between discoveries and transnational audiences. Following on the theme of the internationalization of Egypt’s past, it considers the presence of Egypt in material culture, particularly in eclectic styles and design which were associated with modernity, such as Art Deco architecture and fashion. One main argument of the chapter is that the interwar discovery of Egypt’s multiple pasts was characterized by an internationalization apparent in the politics of archaeology, the spread of the new regime of antiquities and cooperation between Egyptian nationalists and internationalist bodies, and in the mass production and consumption of Egyptiana.

Service-provider industries have used cloud-based technologies in recent years. Information technology (IT) led the development of electronic hardware and software technologies to enable cloud computing as a new paradigm. Other vanguard industries such as communications and financial services leveraged cloud computing technology to develop cloud-based platforms for their respective industries. Manufacturing industry is a relative newcomer to cloud technologies although it has used modern technologies on factory floor to boost production efficiency. Cloud manufacturing (CMfg) is one of the key technologies of Industry 4.0 (I 4.0) and the goal of CMfg is to develop cloud-based approaches in manufacturing that provide flexibility, adaptability, and agility also, reduces challenges caused by system complexity. In recent years, researchers evaluated cloud technologies and proposed initial solutions tailored to manufacturing requirements. However, there are challenges in implementing CMfg due to complexity of technologies, different types of products and wide range of requirements from mass production of consumer products to low-volume specialty products. This paper presents the advantages, challenges and shortcomings associated with applications of the latest technologies to drive transition to CMfg. This research examined cloud technologies proposed for implementation of CMfg such as architectures, models, frameworks, infrastructure, interoperability, virtualization, optimal service selection, etc. This research also studied the role of technologies such as the internet of things (IoT), cyber physical systems (CPS) robotics, big data, radio frequency identification (RFID), 3D printing and artificial intelligence (AI) in accelerating the adoption and future direction of CMfg.

Artikkel annab ülevaate 20. sajandi alguse kirjandusliku avangardi suhetest tehnikaga. Avangardi (eriti futurismi) jaoks pidi tehnika saama loomise eeskujuks ja masinate seadused esteetilise loovuse seadusteks. Artikkel väidab, et paljud avangardi tekstiuuenduslikud ideaalid on vastuolus tehnika ideaalidega ja iseloomustavad ennekõike loodust. Tehnika väärtustas tulemust, avangard protsessi. Tehnika väärtustas süsteemsust, ennustatavust, koopialisust, avangard vabarütme, ennustamatust ja originaalsust. Tehnika nõudis ratsionaalsust ja eesmärgipärast tegutsemist, avangard kuulutas intuitsiooni ja prohvetlikku kujutlust. Tehnika tõi odavad masstooted, avangard hindas haruldust. Tehnika väärtustas funktsionaalsust, avangard ebafunktsionaalsust. Tehnika väärtustas puhtust ja hügieeni, avangard järgis inetuse esteetikat. Tehnika nõudis tootmises vigade ja häirete vältimist, avangard tõstis vea loovaks ideeks.
 
 The article examines the relationship between the early twentieth century international and Estonian literary avant-garde and new technology, which radically changed life and interpersonal relationships in Europe and America (trains, airplanes, metro, telephone, telegraph, skyscrapers, fast food, etc.).
 At first, I highlight general features connecting the new technology and its products, which emerged in distinct opposition to nature. The central activity in the world of technology appeared to be efficient, planned, and purposeful production, in which the main agents were engineer, designer, and worker. The new technology emphasized the value of the product, which rapidly became standardized and cheaply made mass-produced perfect copies of each other. The beauty of the new era was to be a technological, functionalist beauty. Production as a process had to operate without failures and the ideal product had to be without any defects. Therefore, the technological process had to be clean, even hygienic. The new technology established its own rhythm in modern cities, characterized by repeatability and predictability. At the same time, the technology covered cities by the voices that made up the noise of technology.
 It could be said, even, that the new technology exceeded the limits of time and space. The result was a world of simultaneity. At the same time, relationships and links between people became increasingly loose and the world and man’s worldview was characterized by increasing fragmentation.
 The early European avant-garde at the beginning of the twentieth century greeted the new world of technology and speed with great enthusiasm (Italian futurism, constructivism, etc.). Perhaps only early expressionism and Russian futurism had even more ambivalent attitude to the technology. The First World War significantly decreased the pre-war fascination with technology. The war destroyed the faith in the machines; the machine now became a destroyer, and the new mechanical man (a fusion of man and machine) came into view as a killer with killed soul. At the same time, modern technology became more and more common in the everyday life, and, hence, the attitude towards technology changed. The technology became a harrowing phenomenon.
 For early European avant-garde, the new technology was supposed to become a model for the creation and laws of machines laws of aesthetic creativity (Marinetti). We can find several features in the texts of avant-garde (especially in poetry), which are in accordance with the new world of speed and technology.
 Simultaneous and fragmented text represented simultaneity and fragmentarity of the world. The speed was intermediated by the telegram style, parataxis, glossolalia, onomatopoeia, mathematical symbols, etc. The artist’s ideal was engineer and machine had to become a model for making the text. I present examples of such new texts in Estonian avant-garde poetry and prose.
 However, much of the avant-garde ideas and ideals for textual innovation contradicted the ideals of technology. Whilst technology predominantly esteemed the result, the avant-garde valued the process of making the text. In addition, the world of technology expected systematics, predictability, repetitive rhythms, and copies while avant-garde proclaimed free rhythms, free verse, unpredictability, and originality. Technology insisted on rational and purposeful acting; avant-garde proclaimed intuition and prophetic imagination. Technology brought cheap mass products; avant-garde appreciated the rarity and expensiveness. Technology promoted utilitarianism and functionality; avant-garde non-functionality. Technology put stress on the cleanliness and hygiene of the products; avant-garde often followed the aesthetics of ugliness. Technology required efficiency and economy of production, avoiding mistakes and disturbances; avant-garde regarded error as a creative idea.
 I argue that many of these avant-garde ideas are very similar to nature. For example, chaos, illogicality, glossolalia, words-in-freedom, and zaum truly characterize nature. Originality, variability, unpredictable rhythms, non-systematicity are also the qualities of nature. Lack of purpose, irrationality, and lack of thought are features of nature. An error or a shift as the basis of creation and inefficiency characterizes nature, too. The aesthetics of ugliness parallels the ugliness of nature.
 Thus, the observance of the avant-garde ideals results in a text that, on the one hand, craves the world of technology and machines, but on the other hand goes back to the ideas and ideals of nature and seeks solutions largely in the same way as nature.

WHILE WE ALL know that population is a central problem, if we are doers we must do the things the best way we know how for the population we have and what I am talking about is an industrial revolution which is already going on around us. We must have this new industrial revolution; invent it; encourage it. The other industrial revolutions came along somewhat unplanned and certainly people were unprepared for their side effects. The first, which started in England, was magnificent. It was hailed as a way to ennoble man by substituting other forms of power for his muscles. But with that power came filth and smoke and other things that were the side effects. However, the primary benefits were so worth while that the side effects went unnoticed for a time; but you might say that, with power, we had also invented air pollution. Then the availability of power had a second effect; it enabled us to mass produce things for people so tlhat they could have more things to ease their lives. But by mass production, multiplying things to put in people's hands to give them an ease of living, we produced so many things that after use there was more and more to throw away and in this way. we invented the solid waste problem. Then came about the chemical revolution, the ability to tailor-make chemicals, pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, things that could selectively destroy elements of the biological system which were inim,icable to man. But again with these new chemicals came an upsetting of the ecology and so we invented accelerated eutrophication and other new ways to pollute water. No balanced person regrets the discoveries themselves. Without them we would not be living in the ease of the present century as contrasted to the dis-ease that existed before the first industrial revolution. To replace two hundred million automobiles of a hundred horsepower each would take twenty billion horses each causing 25 pounds of solid waste. That's a lot of organic gardening! Concern, however, for the steadily increasing poisoning and the spoiling of our environment has caused some to just say, stop doing what you're doing, . . . stop increasing the production of things for people. Some conservationists, for example, wish to block the building of power plants because of the waste heat problem and to ban the automobile before we have anything to take its place. We must, I think, morally attempt to bring to all people as many things to ease their lives as modern science and technology is capable of providing; but at the same time, we must bring them, and I am sure we can, a clean environment, now that their rising aspirations insist on this. Hopefully, people will be willing to pay for it. We must revise our vocabulary. For instance, tlhere is no such person as a consumer. We consume nothing, whether it be the food we eat, the automobiles we drive, or the hardware in our houses. We merely use things, and according to the law of conservation of matter, exactly the same mass of material is discarded after use. Thus, under our present system of mismanaging material after use, as the standard of living goes up, the amount of waste and consequent pollution must go up. In poor countries where things are scarce, there is very little waste, but the solution in any country is not to reduce the supply of things that people need in order to reduce waste. The object of the next industrial revolution is to ensure that there will be no such thing as waste, on the basis that waste is simply some substance that we do not yet have the wit to use. Industry and business, what some call the private sector, have only been asked to do half their job. They perform magnificent feats of scientific, technological and managerial skills to take things from the land or to grow them in the land, refine them, mass-manufacture, mass-market and mass-distribute them to the so-called consumer; who is nothing but a user. Then the same mass of material is left to the public sector to dispose of after use. By and large, in our society, the private sector makes the things before tise and for

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Most of the vehicles with internal combustion engines worldwide use fossil fuels. The widely used fuels available on the market are gasoline, diesel, and CNG. These fuels are getting costlier every year while at the same time generating pollutants through exhaust gases. Hence in the market, electric vehicles are effectively providing pollution-free solutions in the passenger car and lightweight carrier vehicle segments. However, the off-road, heavy-duty, and stationary applications with high load factors, are in general less favorable for battery electric scenarios since frequent charging will be mandatory and time-consuming. Hence, for these applications, the replacement of an internal combustion engine is quite difficult. There are various renewable fuels like ammonia, methanol, and biodiesel under research tests and study. As these are renewable fuels, the cost of these fuels can be lowered during mass production. Here, the idea of ammonia as an alternate fuel is discussed, which can solve the problem of scarcity of fossil fuel, generation of greenhouse gas (CO<sub>2</sub>) and instant electricity requirements. This technical paper covers the feasibility of ammonia fuel in the internal combustion engine based on the research studies and tests performed for analysis. This study will explain the ammonia fuel characteristics and compare them with other fuels, available technologies of combustion in large bore engines, storage and transport maturity, the impact of change in air fuel mixture on emissions during combustion and challenges in fuel handling due to the toxicity. This will comprise the internal combustion engine exhaust gas emission trend with ammonia fuel. Also, the scope of modification in the existing engines to adopt the ‘ammonia fuel’ with the help of modern design and simulation technology will be covered.</div></div>

The leading place in the technology of modern mechanical engineering production is occupied by cutting processes. In many branches of mechanical engineering, especially in mass production, their labor and production costs reach 40-60% of the total costs of metalworking. Nowadays, no more or less complex machine can be made without the use of cutting tools. Thus, we can rightfully assert that cutting machining has retained its predominant influence on the development of mechanical engineering technology and its importance will be steadily increasing in the future, largely based on the use of fundamentally new machining methods. And the latter can be rightly attributed to the so-called rotary cutting. The authors have developed a design of a special multi-blade rotary-friction tool for machining cylindrical surfaces of parts made of hard-to-machine materials. This paper presents the results of the calculation of the most loaded node of the multi-blade rotary-friction tool of the part “shaft”. Calculation of the bending strength of the shaft has been performed. The results of the calculation have been checked through the program Apm Winmachine which has confirmed their correctness. This research is funded by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Grant No. AP14972884).

Modern development of mechanical engineering sets the tasks consisting in increasing of quality of produced parts, development and introduction of waste-free and lowwaste technological processes. Non-waste and low-waste production reduces the cost of raw materials, which affects the production cost and leads to increased profits. New technological processes for obtaining square box parts can be used at various enterprises of the rocket and space complex, defense industry, aircraft construction, shipbuilding, instrument making, construction, energy, as well as at enterprises producing consumer goods. Also square box parts can be used as metal packing, i.e containers. This is a strong, reliable package that has a low weight and a number of advantages. Manufacture of this type of parts is used in mass and largescale production. In modern mechanical engineering, sheet metal stamping operations are widely used, in which up to 30% or more of metal is discarded when using round and profile blanks. It should be noted that 90% of the cost of finished parts is the cost of metal, so the development of manufacturing technologies in which raw materials are used rationally, is currently an urgent task. The article presents a method of manufacturing square box parts from a square sheet blank, which reduces or eliminates crowning in a square shell. The choice of a square blank is due to the fact that when it is produced, the utilization factor of the material during cutting is 100%. Reducing waste on a large scale leads to significant savings.The research was conducted within the framework of the grant NSh-2601.2020.8.

The article discusses the production of ammunition at the Krasnoye Sormovo plant during the Second World War. Based on the study of general scientific and specialized archival materials, systematization and generalization of the data obtained, an analysis of the activities of the labor collective and management structures of the Krasnoye Sormovo plant for the production of ammunition is carried out. The dynamics of the growth in the production of shells and the development of new types of ammunition in the period 19411944 is determined, the process of creating mass production of shells in the workshops of the plant, strengthening cooperation with other defense enterprises and organizing railway communication between them is shown. The methods of modernization and improvement of equipment and technology for the production of ammunition, methods of increasing the production and personnel potential of the plant, as well as the heroic work of the factory workers in wartime conditions are examined in detail. During the war period, the share of the production of ammunition in the total volume was about 17%, which objectively testifies to the contribution of the production of artillery and rockets at the Krasnoye Sormovo plant to a radical turning point during the Second World War.

In modern CMOS technologies, interconnect or metallization reliability is part of an assessment for process robustness of the vias and aluminium metal lines. Typically these tests - Electromigration and Stressmigration occurs during process or technology qualification prior to mass production. These wearout test methodologies are also used when systematic interconnect defects are encountered during wafer processing. In this paper, we will illustrate a case whereby defect density at bottom of via holes were encountered. Both wearout tests were carried out to evaluate the risk of shipment to customer. The lifetime of the devices were calculated for Electromigration test whereas for Stressmigration a qualitative assessment was made. The results show that via reliability performance is dependent on type of via defect density encountered. Electromigration and Stressmigration were carried as a complement to product reliability test like High Temperature Operating Life (HTOL) which are limited by sample size for a more complete risk assessment.

Furniture design and production are highly technological and have high operation danger. Without basic professional training in furniture carpentry, one can not design or produce delicate furniture. In particular, undergraduates, who possess only design concepts, in relevant departments frequently can not produce furniture which expresses their concepts due to insufficient practical courses. Therefore, this study aimed at the third-grade undergraduates without adequate fundamental training in carpentry. These students were taught how to employ CAD/CAM and CNC Router, and, later, they tried to design a two-storey KD magazine stand, whose size was 1230mm (H)×590mm (W)×260mm (D), according to the golden ration. Based on this stand, they further designed a one-story KD magazine stand and a three-storey one. They also took 1210×2430mm MDF planks as materials to further investigate relevant factors, such as material application, modeling and structural processing, and the strength and stability of product. It was found that when two pieces of planks were employed to create four magazine stands, respectively a one-storey one, a 2-storey one, and two three-storey ones, the 80% utilization ratio was the highest. In terms of stability, the side bearing capacity of the one-storey, two-storey, and three-storey KD magazine stands was respectively 47.2kg˙m, 27.82kg˙m, and 25.49 kg˙m, and the front bearing capacity was respectively 34.72 kg˙m, 14.6 kg˙m, and 12.74kg˙m. It indicated that the side stability was approximately twice higher than the front stability; as the number of the storeys increased, the stability became worse; in terms of long-term load creep, the more storeys a stand had, the higher the creep of height would be, and the bottom storey had a greater frame creep. In addition, a one-storey KD magazine stand, a two-storey one, and a three-storey one could be again assembled into three two-storey KD magazine stands according to the needs This study proved that even with inadequate basic training in carpentry, modern high-tech processing technology could be applied to the design and development of furniture for mass production.