Towards spatially enabled digital government

Spatial Data Infrastructures have gained increasing awareness not only among researhers but also among executive level managers and politicians. Thus a well functioning spatial data infrastructure is seen as an important element in e-Government and online self-service systems. The adoption of the INSPIRE Directive has put spatial data infrastructure on the agendas of the parliaments around Europe and in many cases combined with national e-Government strategies. Although different approaches will prevail around Europe there is a need to assess the strategies in order to identify efficient solutions on common problems – often entitled best practices. The aim of the current paper has been to analyse the Danish approaches to SDI implementation, identifying innovative solutions as well as bottlenecks. Based on the research the paper ends up with some recommendations for SDI implementation in a collaborative environment.

Economic growth rate of any country largely depends on the development of mineral sector. Then, the level of technology employed for meeting the extraction conditions must meet environmental norms. Exploration of mineral resources in India and mining is a ready application for technologies for ensuring productivity and efficiency. Use of Geographical Information System (GIS) in mineral resources management is of great help, where each stakeholder can access, use and exchange spatial and nonspatial data for social, economic and environmental activities. With development of communication and information technology, integration of heterogeneous repository of data from the different data sources can be achieved by using Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI). At the present scenario, the dynamic updating of data, data analysis, data visualisation and data uploading are lacking in most of the information system in GIS environment. For real time integrated mineral resources information monitoring, it is essential to integrate information system with geospatial database. Visualisation of integrated mineral resources information is possible on the desktop environment with the help of GIS. But it is not sufficient for updating the data in dynamic environment. It may be possible to perform dynamic tasks like update, analysis and visualisation of mineral resources information through the mobile devices with the modern high end mobile communication infrastructure. It makes it possible and very useful to take the decision at anytime from anywhere in the world. The data repositories can also be timely updated with the help of common mobile devices from any location, of course with security measure in place. In the present work, a three tier secure framework has been proposed for the mobile based SDI Model for the better management of mineral resources information infrastructure with the use of mobile devices by the integration of geospatial database. The interaction between the various services in the proposed Model has been modeled by using Unified Modeling Language (UML) use case and activity diagrams.

The paper considers the problematic issues of the geographical information systems (GIS) use in the sociohygienic monitoring (SHM). We analyzed scientific and practical publications on this subject that are freely available on the largest Russian information portal of scientific electronic library eLIBRARY.RU during 2014- 2018, which allowed us to formulate the principles of organization and requirements for effective operation of geographic and information systems in the socio-hygienic monitoring. An analysis of the implementation of these principles at the present stage of development for the socio-hygienic monitoring system is presented, the results of which were used in formulating priority tasks in the area of geographic and information technology implementation into socio-hygienic monitoring and risk-based planning of control and supervisory measures: to determine the necessary level of detail and an information list depicted on electronic maps for the implementation of risk-based control planning; to provide organizational and regulatory and methodological support for the hierarchical principle of GIS within Rospotrebnadzor operating on a single software product of domestic developers for organizations and institutions; to work out the need to combine GIS with similar systems of other departments involved in the data collection of social and hygienic monitoring (Rosstat, Roshydromet, Rosprirodnadzor, Ministry of Health, etc.) to enable automated data export and import; to solve staffing issues to ensure customization and subsequent GIS operation; to provide budget funding for the purchase of licensed software products for GIS in SHM, preferably of Russian developers.

Information about places is ubiquitous in the study of history, events occur, people live, and phenomena flourish in more or less identifiable locations. To a greater or lesser extent, all historians make use of geographical information. Potentially, there is a great potential for the use of Geographical Information System s (GIS) in the discipline. However, GIS with origins in the earth sciences and the way that those disciplines model the world, is still based largely on the traditions and requirements of these fields. This means that while there are many advantages to using GIS in historical research, these technologies and analytical approaches must be applied with caution, based on the characteristics of historical data and the traditions of historical scholarship. In this paper we define GIS and explain why it is relevant to historical research. We then use a wide variety of examples to illustrate the ways in which historians are beginning to use GIS. Finally, we discuss how existing software and methods for working with geographic information need to be improved to make it more applicable to historical research. Our aim is to demonstrate that GIS, if properly used, is not only applicable to quantitative, scientific historical paradigms, but is also extensible to the more humanities-driven, qualitative areas of the discipline.

Information communication technologies are widely used to support sustainable development. As both nature and society exist and develop in the geographic space, a good decision making can hardly be imagined without a prior thorough analysis of spatio‐temporal distribution and spatial correlation of diverse ecological, economical and social parameters. Wherever such geospatial relationships are concerned, the methods of geography as of a geographic information science are commonly applied, among which cartography is the most efficient information communication method. Different levels of representation of geographic information, such as databases, geographic information systems (GIS), maps, atlases and Spatial Data Infrastructures can be easily and conveniently used for different steps of planning. More than that, maps have a hidden potential to reveal unknown spatial patterns and trends and the process does not require any specific technological skills from the user. Therefore it is very important to include geographic/cartographic dimension into regional and national sustainable development strategies, so that spatial structures, diversities, similarities and geographic determination are always taken into account. To facilitate the process of geographic decision making, we develop a uniform model of description of geographic methods that could be used online and provide suggestions on which of the known methods could be efficiently applied. Santrauka Tvarioji plėtra nebūtų įmanoma be informacijos komunikavimo priemonių ir technologijų. Ir gamta, ir visuomenė egzistuoja ir vystosi erdvėje, tad neįmanoma įsivaizduoti tinkamu planavimo sprendimų, kurie nebūtų pagristi išankstine išsamia dalykinės srities erdvės ir laiko ryšių analize, neįvertintų erdvinių sąsajų tarp ekologinių, ekonominių ir socialinių parametrų. Visur, kur svarbus objektų išsidėstymas ir jų tarpusavio ryšiai geografinėje erdvėje ir laike, yra taikomi geografinės informacijos mokslo (šiuolaikines geografijos) metodai. Vienas efektyviausių yra kartografinis metodas, leidžiantis intuityviai pastebėti erdvinius ryšius. Galima nagrinėti skirtingus geografines informacijos organizavimo lygmenis, tokius kaip duomenų bazes, geografines informacijos (GIS) sistemos, žemėlapiai, atlasai bei erdvinių duomenų infrastruktūros. Visas šias sistemas galima patogiai ir nesunkiai naudoti įvairiuose planavimo etapuose. Be to, žemėlapiai turi paslėpta potencialą atskleisti iš anksto nežinomus erdvinius ryšius bei tendencijas. Šis procesas yra intuityvus ir nereikalauja iš naudotojo jokiu specialių technologijų žinių ar įgūdžiu. Todėl labai svarbu į nacionalines ir regionines plėtros strategijas įtraukti ir geografini/kartografini matmenį, atsižvelgti į erdvinio išsidėstymo struktūras, skirtumus, panašumas ir galimus geografinius apribojimus. Straipsnio autoriai pasiūlė ir šiuo metu Vilniaus universitete plėtoja universalų geografinių uždavinių aprašymu modelį, kuris padėtu geografines informacijos naudotojams be specialiu žinių pasirinkti tinkama sprendimų seką ir metodus.

The inherent geographic nature of displacement in refugee camps is requiring further use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology for community-based information and asset management. Additionally, refugees have a fundamental need for livelihood development in host countries due to the protracted nature of displacement. This paper presents our work on the Refugee GIS or ‘RefuGIS’ project that addresses these two topics via a training and capacity building education program and community mobilization efforts. RefuGIS is currently at the prototype level of development in the Za'atari Syrian Refugee Camp in northern Jordan. RefuGIS is the one of world's first efforts at enabling GIS capacity among refugees themselves and was funded by a grant from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Innovation fund. Specifically, this paper will discuss (a) design of the RefuGIS educational program via utilization of a non-profit GIS software donation, hardware procurement and customized GIS educational curriculum, (b) selection of refugee participants through spatial thinking aptitude testing, (c) practical experiences and lessons learned from education, training, and capacity building of refugees on the topics of GIS and related information technology skills, (d) insights into use of GIS as a community information and asset management tool by refugees themselves as demonstrated by evaluation of project outputs such as reference mapping products and field surveys conducted by refugees. Lessons learned from the RefuGIS project, even at the prototype stage, have potential to inform other refugee community information and asset management projects. Since creation of the project, refugees in Za'atari camp have been able to obtain cash-for-work GIS jobs in Za'atari using the skills learned via the RefuGIS project. The RefuGIS project demonstrates the refugee livelihood potential that training and capacity building around GIS can build as well as the empowerment effect that technology education and livelihood development can bring to refugees.

The application of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in the work of government bodies, economic subjects and units of regional and local self-government presents the real situation today in every European country, as well as in its regions. The organisation of collecting, storing, distribution and usage of spatial data, in accordance with the principals of spatial data infrastructure (SDI) presents the next (higher) level in the application of spatial data and GIS. Rapid development of GIS application in the last decade highlights two problems in the efficient usage of GIS technologies, entailing the usage of spatial data in general. The first problem is the lack of the concept in organising the spatial data that has been solved basically through the development of IPP concept. The other problem lies in the fact that the subjects and the users do not have enough knowledge of GIS and IPP. Therefore, special attention has been paid within the frame of INSPIRE project to the development of education concept for the subjects and users of IPP, in order to provide the possibility for them to use the advantages offered by the concept of enhanced technologies and IPP itself. The paper presents the current situation in the education referring to GIS and IPP, and describes the activities carried out for the purpose of creating the environment that would provide quicker and more efficient implementation of National SDI (NSDI) based on better information given to the subjects and users.

The development of fuzzy sets in geographic information systems (GIS) arose out of the need to handle uncertainty and the ability of soft computing technology to support fuzzy information processing. An overview of the fundamentals of fuzzy sets is used to illustrate its use in GIS. The use of some terms within both the GIS and fuzzy information processing community is clarified. Since one of the key problems when applying fuzzy sets to GIS problems is in the specification of grades of membership, the many methods used to specify memberships in fuzzy sets in GIS applications are presented. The α–cut is defined and shown to be of increasing importance in GIS. Non–compensatory and compensatory connectives are compared. Aggregation operators are reviewed and shown to be useful in a number of GIS studies. Fuzzy relations and fuzzy control systems are briefly discussed with reference to their use in GIS and in relation to the development of modern soft computing technology. Several features of fuzzy sets make that paradigm attractive for use in GIS. It is concluded that as GIS–related applications increase in their levels of complexity and sophistication fuzzy sets will play a major, cost effective role in their development.

This program designed to enhance the skills and knowledge of students and teaching staff at Pesantren Rahmatullah (Islamic boarding school) regarding the use of Geographic Information System (GIS) technology in boundary mapping. The initiative was launched recognizing the importance of understanding territorial boundaries in the context of natural resource management, development planning, and disaster mitigation in the surrounding areas. The training includes a series of theoretical sessions and field practices. The first stage involves learning how to gather coordinate points in the field using the Garmin 60 CSX GPS device. The second stage focuses on field data processing and coordinate data correction, covering basic GIS knowledge, introduction to GIS software, and usage of Autodesk Map software and Arc GIS 10.8. The third stage is the scaled printing of processed field data. The duration of the training is one semester, following the curriculum set by the Rahmatullah Islamic boarding school. This training aims to equip participants with the necessary skills to produce accurate and informative boundary maps, which will later serve as tools for decision-making and strategic planning at Rahmatullah Lempake Islamic boarding school in Samarinda. Additionally, this activity also aims to enhance the boarding school’s awareness and capacity in utilizing geographic information technology for educational and environmental management purposes.

Use of geographic information systems (GIS) in fisheries science has increased in prevalence since its introduction in the late 1980s, but use among and within fisheries management agencies has not been quantified. We surveyed 89 administrators of fisheries management agencies in the United States and Canada to determine the current status of GIS in fisheries management and received 54 responses (61% return rate). Survey respondents indicated that GIS was used to help manage fish populations, and 63% of respondents believed that GIS was either “very useful” or “extremely useful” for meeting agency objectives. However, most GIS work conducted by fisheries management agencies was executed by few individuals within the agency or by contracted service. Barriers preventing more widespread use by managers within agencies included lack of knowledge or training and limited time to use GIS in job duties. Our results suggest that GIS is an important tool for fisheries management. Further, GIS use within an agency might be increased by focusing on increased biologist participation in training exercises, integration with existing job duties, and recognizing diversity among GIS software. RESUMEN desde que se introdujo en la década de los ochenta, los Sistemas de Información Geográfica (GIS) se han utilizado cada vez más en las ciencias pesqueras, sin embargo aún no se ha cuantificado dicha utilización entre y hacia el interior de las agencias de manejo pesquero. Se realizó un sondeo a 89 encargados de agencias manejo pesquero en los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica y Canadá para determinar el estado actual de los GIS en el ámbito de manejo, recibiéndose 54 respuestas (tasa de retorno de 61%). Los encuestados indicaron que los GIS fueron desde “muy útiles” hasta “extremadamente útiles” para cumplir los objetivos de las agencias. No obstante, la mayor parte del trabajo de las agencias basado en los GIS, era realizado por algunos pocos individuos de las propias agencias o bien por servicios contratados. Las barreras que impiden un uso más generalizado de los GIS hacia el interior de las agencias de manejo incluyen la falta de conocimiento o entrenamiento y limitaciones de tiempo para usar este enfoque como parte del trabajo diario. Estos resultados sugieren que los GIS son una herramienta importante para el manejo de pesquerías. Más aún, el uso de los GIS dentro de las agencias, pudiera incrementarse enfocando o aumentando la participación de los biólogos en los ejercicios de entrenamiento, integración a las labores diarias de trabajo y reconociendo la diversidad de software de los GIS.

In this thesis, concepts for developing Spatial Data Infrastructures with an emphasis on visualizing 3D landscape and city models in distributed environments are discussed. Spatial Data Infrastructures are important for public authorities in order to perform tasks on a daily basis, and serve as research topic in geo-informatics. Joint initiatives at national and international level exist for harmonizing procedures and technologies. Interoperability is an important aspect in this context - as enabling technology for sharing, distributing, and connecting geospatial data and services. The Open Geospatial Consortium is the main driver for developing international standards in this sector and includes government agencies, universities and private companies in a consensus process. 
\n3D city models are becoming increasingly popular not only in desktop Virtual Reality applications but also for being used in professional purposes by public authorities. Spatial Data Infrastructures focus so far on the storage and exchange of 3D building and elevation data. For efficient streaming and visualization of spatial 3D data in distributed network environments such as the internet, concepts from the area of real time 3D Computer Graphics must be applied and combined with Geographic Information Systems (GIS). For example, scene graph data structures are commonly used for creating complex and dynamic 3D environments for computer games and Virtual Reality applications, but have not been introduced in GIS so far. 
\nIn this thesis, several aspects of how to create interoperable and service-based environments for 3D spatial data are addressed. These aspects are covered by publications in journals and conference proceedings. The introductory chapter provides a logic succession from geometrical operations for processing raw data, to data integration patterns, to system designs of single components, to service interface descriptions and workflows, and finally to an architecture of a complete distributed service network.
\nDigital Elevation Models are very important in 3D geo-visualization systems. Data structures, methods and processes are described for making them available in service based infrastructures. A specific mesh reduction method is used for generating lower levels of detail from very large point data sets. An integration technique is presented that allows the combination with 2D GIS data such as roads and land use areas. This approach allows using another optimization technique that greatly improves the usability for immersive 3D applications such as pedestrian navigation: flattening road and water surfaces. It is a geometric operation, which uses data structures and algorithms found in numerical simulation software implementing Finite Element Methods. 
\n3D Routing is presented as a typical application scenario for detailed 3D city models. Specific problems such as bridges, overpasses and multilevel networks are addressed and possible solutions described. The integration of routing capabilities in service infrastructures can be accomplished with standards of the Open Geospatial Consortium. An additional service is described for creating 3D networks and for generating 3D routes on the fly. Visualization of indoor routes requires different representation techniques.
\nAs server interface for providing access to all 3D data, the Web 3D Service has been used and further developed. Integrating and handling scene graph data is described in order to create rich virtual environments. Coordinate transformations of scene graphs are described in detail, which is an important aspect for ensuring interoperability between systems using different spatial reference systems. The Web 3D Service plays a central part in nearly all experiments that have been carried out. It does not only provide the means for interactive web-visualizations, but also for performing further analyses, accessing detailed feature information, and for automatic content discovery.
\nOpenStreetMap and other worldwide available datasets are used for developing a complete architecture demonstrating the scalability of 3D Spatial Data Infrastructures. Its suitability for creating 3D city models is analyzed, according to requirements set by international standards. A full virtual globe system has been developed based on OpenStreetMap including data processing, database storage, web streaming and a visualization client.
\nResults are discussed and compared to similar approaches within geo-informatics research, clarifying in which application scenarios and under which requirements the approaches in this thesis can be applied.
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In the current context of renewable energy development, the most important task is to minimize the environmental impact of wind farms (WPPs) on the environment. The use of geographic information systems (GIS) allows for effective analysis and modeling of the impact of WPP placement, taking into account environmental, landscape, climatic and social factors.The article considers the use of geographic information systems (GIS) to assess the environmental impact of the location of a wind farm (WPP) on the territory of the "Polonyna Runa" tract of the Turye-Remetivka territorial community.The study involves the collection and processing of spatial data, including relief, wind speed and direction, the presence of protected areas and habitats of sensitive flora and fauna. GIS will be used to analyze visual and noise impacts, assess risks to biodiversity and public health, and model alternative siting options.The assessment results contribute to making informed decisions regarding the choice of a location for wind power plants, reducing negative environmental impact and ensuring a balance between the development of green energy and the preservation of the natural environment.

Cartography and spatial data infrastructures (SDIs) are mutually dependent on each other: SDIs provide geographic information for maps; and maps help to understand geographic information provided by an SDI. SDIs emerged in the 1990s when paper maps were replaced by map production from digital geographic information. They evolved from government-funded initiatives within the geographic information science (GISc) community to SDIs with a variety of data producers and an audience much beyond the relatively small GISc community. SDIs continue to evolve in response to new technologies and developments. This chapter traces SDI evolution over the last three decades and considers how SDI technical developments have impacted map production and how they are likely to impact map production in the future.

The technical skills of using geographical information systems (GIS) are often taught in different higher education disciplines apart from geocapabilities or geographic disciplinary expertise. Theorised to include capabilities such as spatial thinking, geographical imagination and structured ways to explore places, the concept of geocapabilities has been developed from educator perspectives but student perspectives have yet to be empirically examined. Drawing upon recommendations that students can better acquire geocapabilities through research and authentic problem‐solving, this study examines how 27 higher education students' perceptions of geocapabilities evolved as they learnt technical skills of web mapping through investigating real‐world issues with ArcGIS StoryMaps. Content analyses of students' pre‐ and post‐class reflections suggest that students' perceptions aligned with existing theorisations of geocapabilties in areas such as spatial thinking and geographical imagination. However, students also perceived that geographers need curiosity, interest, enthusiasm, and love for geography, and generic skills for working and living in the world that are not geography‐related. Through making story maps with GIS, students' perceptions of geocapabilities shifted significantly in the areas of geographical practice and application, geographical imagination and interdisciplinarity. The implications of these findings for higher education teaching of GIS and how it informs the theorisation of geocapabilities are discussed. Practitioner notes What is already known about this topic Walkington et al. conceptualized geocapabilities from educator perspectives, characterizing it by geographical imagination, ethical subject‐hood, integrative thinking about society and environment, spatial thinking, and structured exploration of place. This has not been investigated empirically from students' perspectives. There is preponderant evidence that the use of geographical information systems (GIS) such as ArcGIS Online and other geospatial technologies can improve students' spatial thinking skills and subject knowledge but how it may develop other geocapabilities have not been examined. What this paper adds There were shifts in undergraduates' conceptions of geocapabilities as they learnt ArcGIS StoryMaps by researching and producing story maps about real‐world issues through flipped classrooms. Like Walkington et al., students conceived geocapabilities to include spatial thinking and geographical imagination but they perceived the other geocapabilities as interdisciplinarity and geographical practice and application. Students also perceived geographers as needing curiosity, interest, enthusiasm and love for geography, and generic capabilities to manoeuvre different tools and skills for working, ways of thinking and ways of working. Implications for practice and/or policy Students' and educators' view could be synthesized and better defined to create a more comprehensive and inclusive framework of geocapabilties. Students can better develop insights about different geocapabilities when they learn GIS technologies through researching real‐world issues. GIS teachers can use flipped classrooms to synthesize teaching and learning about GIS and teaching and learning with GIS.

This chapter performs a case analysis of the integrated use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Expert Systems (ES) to assist decision-making process specifically on the question: where is the best place for a new retailer at the bank-industry? Choosing the best location for a new commerce unit is an important and complex decision because both spatial and symbolic variables are involved. The choice of locations requires strategic decisions based not only on common sense but also on the experience of experts, and this involves solid research. The integration of GIS with other special-purpose software can improve the potential of performed analysis. Particularly GIS integrated with ES can assist those tasks by making them less subjective. GIS can subsidize spatial marketing analysis by combining company socio-economic variables with the concurrence ones, while ES can store the expert’s logical sequence of reasoning and even the importance order of symbolic variables. When the expert queries the ES, he or she gets data collected by other professionals otherwise dependant on them. In bank industry those decisions are critical, because opening a new unit must take in account the spatial variables, as concurrence proximity, and symbolic variables concerned about the building where it will be located. This chapter was based on a dissertation for Master Degree (Carnasciali, A. M. S., 2007) in which a study case was developed, on an analysis using integrated ES and GIS to open a new retailer of HSBC Bank Brazil S/A, in the city of Curitiba, Parana – Brazil. A comparison was made between the methods used by the HSBC experts against the proposed system. Conclusions pointed out that the proposed system has contributed to an improvement in the decision-making process for the banking industry location problems, enlarging possibilities for spatial analysis and assisting the experts with subjective tasks.