Transit-oriented development and accessibility: A review and conceptual framework proposal

Transit-oriented development (TOD) is a topic that is currently much discussed by architects. Besides discussed by architects, TOD is also much considered by people of various disciplines, such as urban designer, urban planner, property developer, policy developer, etc. The TOD concept understood by architects may be different from the one understood by people of other disciplines. This article compares the TOD concept followed by (candidates of) architecture graduates with the TOD concept that is discussed by people of different disciplines. This article examines the TOD concept that is understood and applied to the architectural design of three architecture graduate candidates with the state of the art of the TOD concept. The comparison is carried out through direct observation of the architectural designing process of the three candidates and reading of the articles written by the candidates recording and summarizing their designing process and the rationales of their designs. It is found that the candidates are very familiar with the regional physical design aspect of TOD (i.e., land-use, density and street network) but are not very familiar with other elements (i.e., residents’ mobility, built environment development staging, and transit and property market and development financing). While the candidates applied TOD principles on land-use, density, and street network in their designs, they did not apply TOD principles on the mentioned other aspects. This article shows the TOD concept as understood by architecture graduates and the understanding’s position within the state of the art of the TOD concept; this article may serve as the shared footing for people of various disciplines to plan and design TOD.

Planning of transit-oriented development is acceptable among urban and transport planners as an urban form strategy to reduce automobile dependency, thus promoting transport sustainability. Apart from the mixed land use, high density and the “smart growth” philosophy behind the transit-oriented development concept which offer potential for a sustainable built environment, the impacts of transit-oriented development on the formation of sustainable communities have not yet been thoroughly studied. This paper aims to assess a rail-based transit-oriented development in Hong Kong for the formation of a sustainable community. A new town highly integrated with the transit-oriented development concept is studied, with a focus on its achievements and challenges in promoting transport and urban sustainability through greener travel, mixed land use development, as well as other daily life experiences altered by the transit-oriented concept, such as liveable streets and fair access to daily opportunities. The...

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)-based residential areas have emerged as a solution to address urbanization and mobility challenges in metropolitan regions. This concept offers housing with easy access to public transportation and various supporting facilities. However, despite its numerous benefits, public adoption of the TOD concept remains varied. This study aims to identify key factors within the TOD framework that influence individuals' intention to reside in TOD-based areas. Using a quantitative approach and Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), data were collected from potential residents interested in purchasing properties within TOD projects connected to Jabodebek LRT and KRL networks. The results indicate that conducive and seamless pedestrian environment, affordability and quality of the public transport system, pedestrian amenities, and compact and mixed-development concept all have a significant influence on individuals’ intention to reside in TOD areas. The implications of this study provide a valuable foundation for developers in designing more attractive and context-responsive TOD communities that align with the needs and preferences of urban populations.

Few previous studies have linked transit-oriented development (TOD) patterns and property values at the station level in the Chinese context. Using Shanghai as a case study, we obtained 21,094 transaction records within the 800 m radius catchment areas of 280 urban rail stations from a local property agency. A performance-based TOD indicator framework was established to capture built-environment features for density, diversity, and design dimensions. Using open-source geospatial data, we generated a series of TOD indicators for each station catchment area and further developed a composite TOD index with information entropy weighting. The results of multilevel regression models showed that within urban rail station catchment areas, residential properties with higher TOD levels were positively associated with higher value. In addition, increasing pedestrian and bike accessibility and integrating diversified urban functions around stations could create more value for nearby residential properties.

Transit-oriented design (TOD) – an increase in density around transit stations – has arisen in many of Australia’s capital cities as a way to encourage mass transit ridership as well as to efficiently utilize the increase in foot and vehicle traffic that transit stations create. However, the implementation of TODs in Melbourne has faced strong opposition due to residents’ perception that the disamenities of a TOD will outweigh the benefits resulting in negative impacts on property prices. This research analyzes the relationship between proximity to a TOD and residential home prices. Results indicate that proximity to a TOD is positively related to property prices, even after controlling for neighborhood factors such as street connectivity and overall land use mix. By testing a variety of transformations of distance, we find that the benefits of TOD proximity extend approximately 1250 m from the Box Hill station. From a methodological standpoint, we find that more flexible treatments of distance variables in spatial autoregressive and spline models produce better model fit and lead to results more in line with urban economic theory.

Transit Oriented Development (TOD) has been a promising concept to establish land use and transport integration, thereby creating more sustainable communities.Literature suggests that the benefits of TOD are manifold but also different for each stakeholder.A literature survey furthermore reveals that there is no standard definition nor a generally accepted aim for TOD, which is not very surprising because of the different perspectives of stakeholders in the process of achieving TOD.In addition it has been found that different methods and various sets of indicators to evaluate and measure TOD have been proposed.Examination of a number of case studies shows that these methods have hardly been operationalised.To guide decision making for new transit oriented development(s) it is essential to have a framework and a tool to quantitatively measure current levels of TOD at a location and in an area.The tool also needs to be flexible and able to support participatory planning processes.This paper provides a literature survey on the TOD concept and its operationalisations and it presents a design framework for a tool that enables quantitative measurement of TOD.

Since the 1990s, Jakarta city planning has introduced Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) as solution to dominant auto-mobility and sprawl to regional cities in Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi (JABODETABEK) by improving accessibility and inter-connectivity in urban mobility. Nevertheless, less has been investigated to what extent the on-going implementation in TOD projects departs from the means of TOD as planning approach in response to the urban problems. This paper aims to investigate TOD concept and implementation in Jakarta by proposing a comparative study on TOD in Japan and JABODETABEK, by using desk study in the planning documents and TOD projects. In each case, the investigation focuses on three sections; planning, implementation, and output. This paper reveals that the current TOD projects in Jakarta are based on single land development within proximity of TOD stations that maximizes private development benefits. Therefore, it concludes that the “TOD” projects in Jakarta have not yet met the TOD principles as a planning approach in response to the urban sprawls and integrated development.

Transit-oriented development (TOD) has become popular across the nation not just as a partial solution for rampant highway traffic congestion but also as a way of life. The emphasis of TOD on creating a close-knit, pedestrian-friendly, distinctively designed form of urban and suburban development appears able to elicit support even where transit service is minimal or nonexistent. TOD is solidly ensconced as a significant component of smart growth, sustainable development, and new urbanism. Public officials often view the concept as a valuable building block for developing accessible and attractive communities, and transit agencies value its generation of increased ridership. The benefits of TOD for transit operators and broader transportation policies are fairly well established. Less well appreciated is that urban sites most suitable for TODs are transit friendly but often developer unfriendly, since they are often more expensive and more complicated to develop. In contrast, the suburban locations most desired by residents and businesses are developer friendly but transit unfriendly. For them to support transit requires special efforts to increase density, mixed uses, and pedestrian orientation, qualities uncommon and often resisted in the suburbs. A number of projects generally considered among planners and developers to be effective TODs were examined, and their strengths and weaknesses are reviewed from a transit perspective, on the basis of several specific principles. The TOD concept is demonstrated to be alive and well and evolving toward the described ideals.

The purpose of this research is to empirically test the prevailing view that transit oriented development enhances the use of more sustainable modes of transport using Brisbane, Australia as a case. Transit oriented development has been adopted as a new policy tool to reduce car-based travel worldwide. Despite being a billion dollar investment, the impacts of transit oriented development on promoting sustainable travel behavior is not conclusive. The research uses a case-control approach to empirically investigate this relationship based on travel behavior data collected from 88 individuals living in two contrasting neighborhoods in Brisbane: Kelvin Grove Urban Village – a transit oriented development, and Annerley – a traditional suburb (non-transit oriented development). A comparative investigation of travel behavior was subsequently conducted using distance travelled by modes and purposes between the neighborhoods. Results show that the availability of opportunity and services located within the transit oriented development reduces the car use by 5% and increases the use of active transport by 4%. The findings in this research support the implementation of TOD policies in Brisbane.

The transportation and land use planning paradigm is shifting away from segregated uses connected by highways and roads to more compact, mixed-use developments connected by high-quality transit. This new paradigm has brought transit-oriented development (TOD) to the fore, and researchers continue to highlight advantages of this style of well-integrated land use and transportation planning. When it comes to affordability, what counts isn’t housing costs alone but the combination of housing plus transportation costs (H+T). If TODs do, in fact, command higher rents due to increased transit accessibility, this creates an issue of social equity, especially if higher housing costs are not offset by transportation-related cost savings. Promoting a development style that limits access for transit-dependent populations by pricing those residents out of the market could potentially be counterproductive. This study (Phase I) assesses rent premiums associated with living in TODs and answers the question of whether TOD-style development is affordable for low- and moderate-income households by first, compiling a complete 100% inventory of free-standing TODs in the U.S. It also identifies measures taken by decision-makers (mainly jurisdictions and transit operators) and TOD developers to make housing affordable for low- and moderate-income households. Our complete inventory has 183 potential TODs within 26 rail-served regions. Among them, 85 TODs within 23 regions meet our TOD criteria. Our analysis reveals that there is a significant level of variability across regions, TODs and individual housing projects within TODs in terms of numbers and shares of designated and naturally occurring affordable units. Overall, one-third of the TODs have units that are naturally affordable to families of two people who earn less than 80% of the area median income, one-fourth of the TODs have such units for families of four people, and only 15% of them offer the same to families of three people. Interestingly, 15% of the projects within TODs are 100% affordable, while 60% of the projects offer either less than 10% or none of their units as affordable. Finally, there are only a few measures designed to specifically promote/ incentivize/ regulate the production of affordable housing in TODs.

Transit oriented development (TOD) has gained popularity as a means to address urbanizations problems such as traffic congestion, air pollution and affordable housing strategies. It simply refers to integration of urban development and public transportation facilities, together with some other characteristics such as “intensified land uses near TOD stations”, “landownership and car-ownership variety”, mixed use, “lower car dependency”, compact form, mass transit stations, open spaces, walkability, etc. The major contention of this paper is to discuss the general concept of TOD, its benefits and challenges in Iranian urban context. It is discussed here that TOD has several positive outcomes considering the existing urbanization trends in Iran. It may be used as a practical instrument to deal with rapidly urbanizing country in which motorization rate is increasing and air pollution is the serious cause of life loss. However there are several challenges which should be faced. The need for an Iranian version of TOD, which re-narrated the theory according to local situation, is the first challenge. A paradigm shift in the government, shifting the priority from housing schemes to mass transit systems is the second challenge needed to be taken into consideration. The third challenge is the overlapping and parallel institutions dealing with mass transit systems in urban and regional transportation planning and insufficient planning instruments. The integrated transportation and urban planning system is necessary here, and there is an urgent need to develop a national TOD guideline with the potential to develop local versions for each city.

Transportation systems and cities that are connected by development-oriented transit (DOT) should be reconnected under the newer concept of transit-oriented development (TOD). This paper examines the reasons why cities should progressively change from DOT to TOD. The literature was reviewed to examine the urban history of DOT and TOD and the aims of TOD were identified. The relationship between sustainable development and concepts of TOD was then established to show why cities should change from DOT to TOD. It was also concluded that the concepts of TOD match sustainable development. Finally, extended strategies of TOD were established for Taipei City in the two specific perspectives of the transport system and land use.

The positive impact of transit-oriented-development characteristics on Metro Station usage: A case study of Tehran's metro stations and TOD index calculation

Portland State University has worked with the Portland Metro regional government periodically since 2005 to survey occupants of buildings for which developers had received funding from Metro’s Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Program. This research extends upon the prior TOD surveys in Portland by revisiting a set of developments with a second wave of surveys to understand how the travel behavior of TOD residents may change over time, and what factors influence change in travel patterns. The second-wave surveys, coming 8-13 years after the baseline surveys, include five TODs in the west-side Portland suburbs of Hillsboro and Beaverton, two TODs in East Portland, and eight TODs in the east-side Portland suburb of Gresham. Second-wave surveys were sent to the same buildings as the baseline surveys (in most cases, to every unit), but not specifically to the same people as in the baseline. Surveys asked about household travel options, daily travel for work and non-work purposes, and questions on travel preferences and attitudes. Our hypothesis was that as neighborhoods are built out, both around the TOD and other transit station areas, residents would have greater opportunities to use transit (along with walking and bicycling) for daily travel. For the sample as a whole, there were three changes between the baseline and second-wave surveys that are consistent with the objectives of TODs: the share of people commuting to work by driving alone four to five days a week fell from 58% to 46%, while the share never driving alone rose from 11% to 24%; the share of people walking or biking to work at least one day a week rose from 9% to 29%; and the share of people living in low-car households (fewer cars than adults) increased from 34% to 50%, though the share of car-free household did not change. We did not see any changes in the overall sample with respect to commuting by transit or using transit, walking, or bicycling for other, non-commute trip purposes.

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) is advocated for achieving sustainable transportation through development around transit stations. TOD’s global implementation revealed varied outcomes, with many cities failing to achieve the intended objectives. TOD implementation in the Jakarta Metropolitan area still in its infancy. Through a geospatial information system and a survey of 400 commuters who live inside the 1 km radius of planned TOD, this longitudinal study aimed to examine an eight-year lapse between 2013 and 2020 of changes in two aspects, specifically land-use and spatial distribution as well as commuters’ travel behavior and preferences in TOD implementation and travel changes due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Key findings are as follows: increased diversity in the residential function around planned TOD areas in the Jakarta capital and a decrease in the suburbs, reflecting the commuters’ improved readiness to reside in planned TOD areas. Furthermore, kinship relations were the commuters’ main reason when selecting house locations, with no capacity to change their workplaces. A significant increase in public facilities at the expense of green open space (GOS) indicates that TOD implementation was conducted by the government with the sole authority to manage GOS, lacking private sector involvement. The cost factor was the most dominant reason for the commuter’s use of public transportation, instead of new transport modes such as MRT and LRT. Moreover, the commuter’s travel behavior in all studied transit stations, whilst it showed evidence of changes in time and frequency, was not greatly influenced by the COVID-19 related restrictions.