When Gesture “Takes Over”: Speech-Embedded Nonverbal Depictions in Multimodal Interaction

This article explores the potential of the classroom as a venue for authentic, real-life language use, and highlights the importance of unplanned classroom communication. Examples from the lessons of prospective English teachers in Hungary and Turkey indicate that, when given the opportunity, EFL students enjoy using the L2 spontaneously. The classroom observations provide evidence that unplanned interactions can create conditions which give rise to humour and linguistic creativity, both of which feature prominently in language use outside the classroom as well. By raising metalinguistic awareness and promoting fluency, humorous language play facilitates language acquisition as it enables learners to experiment as well as express their own meanings and find their voice in English. Teachers should, therefore, encourage off-task conversations and make good use of students’ humorous repartee and asides. Teacher educators should also encourage prospective teachers to create and exploit opportunities for naturally occurring interaction in their future classes.

Corpus Linguistics in the context of English as a Second Language (ESL) is high in demand as an approach that guides ESL practitioners in making informed decisions about language teaching. This discipline of Corpus Linguistics can be efficiently incorporated into material designing and teaching methodology, paving the way for both feasible and quality teaching and learning processes. The tool used for corpus analysis in this research is AntConc software. This research aims to unravel how the data derived from AntConc software can be used to make materials that reflect the real-life language use. The analysis derived from studying and analyzing a corpus is indeed an effective guide in the context of English Language Teaching (ELT). The text analysis performed by this software proves that the frequent patterns of language it identifies are a valuable resource for creating materials that accurately represent real-life language use.

In global communication, foreign language learning has gained increasing importance. Effective language use requires the development of four core skills (listening, reading, writing, speaking) and adequate knowledge of grammar and vocabulary. Numerous instructional methods have emerged over time, the communicative approach has proven particularly effective due to its emphasis on authentic interaction and real-life language use. These skills must therefore be cultivated in an integrated and mutually reinforcing manner. This article examines scholarly perspectives on communicative approach and highlights the role of present-day resources, pedagogical competence, technology, and innovative practices in today's educational settings. This article is based on data and findings obtained from surveys conducted in schools in Azerbaijan, EU countries, and Turkey. Educational tools include authentic materials, textbooks, visual aids, games, and role-play scenarios that promote communication and cultural awareness. Technical resources encompass audio and video materials, language learning software, interactive whiteboards, online collaboration platforms, and recording tools, all of which facilitate listening, speaking, and interactive practice. Pedagogical resources involve task-based learning activities, dialogue scripts, error correction strategies, communicative assessments, and cultural materials, supporting learners’ functional language competence. Integrating these resources ensures authentic, interactive, and contextually meaningful language learning experiences, fostering both linguistic and communicative competence.

This study hypothesized “that one who has nothing to say has nothing to write” to investigate the effects of grammatical awareness on performance in language proficiency test among first-year university students at the University of Buea (UB). The sample comprised 100 first-year students purposively sampled from Use of English classes at UB. Using Piaget’s (1936) Theory of Cognitive Development, data for the study was collected and analysed using descriptive statistics. The findings revealed that pre-university students upon enrolment harbour stereotyped and somewhat erroneous forms and structures of grammar that eventually become difficult to get out of their minds, and these are often introduced by their teachers or sometimes the environment they come from. Based on the findings, the study recommends that teachers of English at every stage should endeavour to engage students with real-life language use as this has the potentials to improve the communicative abilities.

<p>This review article examines the concept of collocational competence in learning English as a foreign language, considering its theoretical foundations, definitional development, empirical research, and pedagogical implications. Drawing on Firth’s principle that word meaning is shaped through its typical co-occurrence patterns and Halliday’s concept of lexicogrammar, collocational competence is situated within contemporary theories of phraseology. The paper synthesizes findings from corpus-based studies and classroom research, which demonstrate that collocational knowledge plays a crucial role in the development of idiomaticity, fluency, and overall communicative competence across diverse educational contexts. Existing research consistently shows that collocational competence develops more slowly than vocabulary size, and that even advanced learners experience difficulties in the productive use of conventionalized word combinations. Verb–noun collocations, low-frequency and semantically opaque combinations, as well as collocations that are incongruent with learners’ first-language patterns, are particularly problematic. These findings confirm that collocational knowledge does not emerge spontaneously through exposure to language alone but requires targeted and systematic pedagogical intervention. The paper further highlights the importance of explicit, corpus-informed, and strategy-based instruction, which has proven significantly more effective than implicit learning. Successful approaches include working with authentic corpora, developing noticing and memory strategies, and integrating collocations into tasks focused on real-life language use. At the same time, key methodological and conceptual challenges are identified, including inconsistent definitions, a limited number of longitudinal studies, and insufficiently contextualized assessment models. The study concludes by emphasizing the need for integrated curricular frameworks and mixed-method assessment approaches that link collocational competence to communicative outcomes across different proficiency levels.</p>

Two communication types of the Chinese [búshì … ma] patterning can be found in earlier studies in which Type 1 is understood as a yes-no question (default form) and Type 2 a rhetorical question carrying a negative semantic prosody, both types taking place in a “2-party” dialogue. This research has further identified an emergent “construction” (Croft, 2001) that figures also as a rhetorical question (Type 3) except in a “3-party” conversation setting. This Type 3 is found to serve a primary communicative purpose, that is, for “positive interpersonal bonding.” Other findings discussed include: (a) that [búshì … ma] has defaulted from Type 1 to Type 2 in today’s Mandarin Chinese, (b) that there exist subjectivity-based variations in interpreting the thematic agents of a Type 2 expression, (c) that Type 3 expressions have emerged on the grounds of “intersubjectivity,” and (d) that while both Types 2 and 3 are rhetorical questions, they indeed require very different sets of pragmatic competence for implementing an intended illocutionary force. The study looks particularly at how Type 2 and Type 3 [búshì … ma] constructions differentiate themselves from each other and how the [búshì … ma] patterning reflects linguistic economy and efficiency in real-life language use through grammaticalization (grammatical constructionalization).

This article explores how Norwegian teenagers experienced the development of spoken fluency of English as a second language (L2) through varied and sensuous learning in an outdoor environment. The article is based on six semi-structured group interviews with 23 year-8 students (13–14 years old) in a lower secondary school in Norway. The interviews were analysed qualitatively using thematic analysis, and the results indicate that the students found their English fluency to be improved and that the outdoors environment increased their confidence and intrinsic motivation for developing their spoken English skills. The results are interpreted as a consequence of new and varied affordances in an outdoor environment. Students reported increased willingness to communicate in the target language due to increased confidence, real-life language use, and interesting ways of learning.

This study analyzes the implementation of English language assessment based on the five fundamental principles of evaluation: practicality, reliability, validity, authenticity, and washback. The assessment was designed to evaluate students’ competencies in listening, speaking, reading, and writing through a combination of multiple-choice and essay questions. The test was administered to 28 eight-grade students at SMP Taman siswa Pematangsiantar. Employing a descriptive qualitative approach with quantitative support, the research incorporated inter-rater reliability checks and item difficulty analysis to ensure comprehensive evaluation. The findings reveal that the English test was practical within the constraints of real classroom settings, demonstrated high reliability through consistent scoring across raters, and achieved validity by effectively measuring the targeted language skills. Furthermore, the test tasks reflected authentic, real-life language use and generated positive washback by enhancing teaching practices and learning outcomes. Notably, the results highlighted the significance of grammatical accuracy, particularly in productive skills such as speaking and writing. This study offers a practical model for implementing the principles of language assessment in Indonesian EFL classrooms, even with limited resources, and serves as a useful reference for educators and researchers in developing valid, reliable, and pedagogically sound assessment tools. Moreover, the use of both objective and subjective formats allowed for a balanced assessment of language proficiency. The multiple-choice items helped identify general understanding and knowledge, while the essay sections provided insight into students' ability to express ideas and use language creatively. This dual approach helped ensure a more comprehensive picture of student performance. This study serves as a practical reference for English teachers, curriculum developers, and researchers seeking to improve classroom-based language assessment. It reinforces the idea that sound assessment practices grounded in clear principles can enhance learning outcomes even in under-resourced educational environments.

Singapore is a multicultural and multilingual country. The four official languages of Singapore are English, Malay, Mandarin Chinese, and Tamil. An "English-knowing" bilingual policy was established in 1953. In recent years, there has been a clear trend towards language shift in Singapore families from mother tongue to English. Besides the official languages, Singlish and Singnese have emerged in Singaporeans' daily lives. Linguistic studies in Singapore have mostly followed the language separation norm, which cannot fully represent highly diverse real-life language use in Singapore. Hence, this study analysed language use from the perspective of polylanguaging. Speakers who employ whatever linguistic features they need to achieve their communicative aims are practising polylanguaging. The linguistic features can be described along three parameters: linguistic features associated with different languages, linguistic features associated with different registers, and speakers' positioning. Two research questions were set. First, what is the nature of polylanguaging in the talk of speakers from families of diverse backgrounds? Second, is the choice of linguistic features context-bound? Two Singaporean families (the Hau and the Ngor family), two Malaysian families (the Lim and the Toh family) and two Chinese families (the Chiu and the Zhao family) participated in this study. Each family filled in a language ecology questionnaire and collected spontaneous language data in four different contexts: mealtime, free play or daily routines, Chinese-related context, and English-related context. A total of 12 hours, 11 minutes, 17 seconds of valid video recordings and 12 hours, 25 minutes, 38 seconds of valid audio recordings were transcribed and analysed. All utterances were coded as EO (English Only), MCO (Mandarin Chinese Only), or NEONMCO (Neither English Only Nor Mandarin Chinese Only). Among the Singaporean families, the Haus and the Ngors displayed a greater usage of linguistic features associated with English. The primary register they used was mainly SCE (Singapore Colloquial English). The two Malaysian families, the Lims and the Tohs showed a higher occurrence of linguistic features associated with Mandarin Chinese, particularly in the case of the Tohs. They tended to combine linguistic features from different languages. The registers they used varied between SCM (Singapore Colloquial Mandarin) and SCE. As for the two Chinese families, the Chius and the Zhaos, they predominantly exhibited linguistic features associated with Mandarin Chinese. The main register they used was BSM (Beijing Standard Mandarin), particularly in the case of the Zhaos. All six families engaged in polylanguaging regardless of their linguistic ideology. The major contributions of this study are providing data for theorising polylanguaging, providing a new lens in viewing "a language," and stimulating the rethinking of language learning and language use. Future studies should recruit more varied families within each cultural background and develop a more comprehensive coding system.

Traditional language assessments have often relied on standardized tests, which emphasize discrete skills and overlook real-life language use. These assessments frequently result in test anxiety and reduced motivation among English language learners (ELLs). To address these challenges, policymakers in countries such as Finland, Australia, Japan, and Malaysia have implemented Classroom-Based Language Assessment (CBLA). This approach emphasizes teachers’ professional judgment, ongoing monitoring, and feedback. However, concerns persist regarding the subjectivity and reliability of CBLA in measuring language proficiency. It is therefore essential to examine whether CBLA is an effective alternative despite these criticisms. This scoping review investigates the impact of CBLA on ELLs’ language proficiency. Following Arksey and O’Malley’s framework for conducting scoping reviews, 15 studies published between 2011 and 2024 were retrieved from the Web of Science and Scopus databases, with additional relevant studies sourced from ERIC and JSTOR. The review focused the impact of CBLA on various areas of ELLs’ language proficiency. Key areas examined included language skills, grammar and vocabulary knowledge, and intercultural competence. The findings indicate that the effectiveness of CBLA depends on ELLs’ proficiency, age, targeted skills taught, and classroom settings. Future mixed-method studies should combine observation of classrooms, interviews of teachers and ELLs to develop CBLA models that promote effective language development for ELLs in diverse settings.

This project presents the new and improved version of A Little Life (ALL): Verse and Schedule for Your Soul, which was originally developed as a planner book that combines undated daily and monthly planner with written entries. The upgraded version of “ALL” is developed as a mobile application to support English language learning among English as Second Language (ESL) learners. The mobile application retains the foundational elements of the original planner such as daily and monthly digital planner sheets, interactive writing prompts, and original creative writings, while adding new interactive features designed for digital engagement. Moreover, users are exposed to curated emotional vocabulary lists derived from literary entries which include definitions to support real-life language use. To further engage its users, this one-of-a-kind application incorporates gamification elements such as digital journaling badges, streak milestones, and a personal dashboard which the application can track mood tags, vocabulary growth, and writing consistency. This approach aims to transform language learning into a personal journey to encourage users to regularly express themselves and track their emotional improvement. By integrating language learning strategies, writing therapy techniques, and mobile technology, “ALL” provides its users with both practical tools for journaling and emotional connection through relatable literary materials. It is intended that by focusing on shared experiences through expressive writing, the application seeks to provide the users with a sense of companionship in terms of comprehending their feelings and planning their day ahead. Ultimately, “ALL” serves as a digital companion that grows with its users to make language learning a personal, expressive, and healing journey.

Language corpora are increasingly recognized as a useful tool for observing patterns of real-life language use. This study investigates various discourse functions of Korean 'yes' words, namely, yey, ney, and ung, based on a Korean speech corpus. Using a corpus of Korean native speakers' unscripted conversations, this study identified ten major functions of yey, ney and ung: (1) positive response, (2) continuer, (3) display of understanding, (4) hesitation filler, (5) self-affirmation, (6) attention getter, (7) response to calling, (8) repair initiator, (9) display of surprise or confusion, and (10) confirmation seeker. The ten functions were then examined for their frequency rates and the contexts of occurrences. Although yey, ney, and ung are widely perceived as simply indicating positive response, this study demonstrates a range of discourse functions that yey, ney, and ung carry in real-world communication. This study further discusses the pedagogical implications of corpora in classroom language teaching and learning.

Using authentic materials in teaching ESP is part and parcel of communicative approach methodology. Unadapted materials bring the classroom closer to real-life language use and overall make language learning more meaningful and engaging for students. The needs analysis of Ukrainian students, which shows that many of them wish to continue their studies in English language universities abroad, makes the use of authentic materials particularly relevant, as they model the situations that students can potentially face in their future professional life. The presence of a vast array of authentic materials available today is both a challenge and a benefit for teachers, since they have to choose the ones which would meet their students’ needs and expectations. Based on an ESP class taught to philosophy students, this article offers a suggestion on how to approach teaching presentation making skills and provides the practical outcome of using a TEDx talk in the ESP classroom. The featured talk, which focuses on today’s perception of stoicism, was followed by some tasks to promote students’ critical thinking and facilitate their future presentation planning, as well as by the students’ own presentations in which they had to make use of the strategies discussed in class. Listening to the genuine presentation and using it as a model for presentations of their own follows the principles of CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), which can benefit students by its explicit emphasis on the content and gives them a chance to acquire syntax, lexis, and discourse style skills as a by-product of content-oriented learning.

This study explores the challenges faced by undergraduate students at Sardar Bahadur Khan Women’s University Sub Campus Nushki in learning English as a foreign language. The study deals within Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, emphasizing how social interaction, cultural norms, and linguistic background effect English language acquisition. Using quantitative research design, data was collected through structured questionnaires from 170 students. The findings show key challenges, including mother tongue interference, a curriculum focused on rote memorization, lack of teacher preparedness, and restricted opportunities for real-life language use. Social discouragement and insufficient teacher engagement further affected learners’ confidence and motivation. The study concludes that refining teaching strategies, adopting bilingual methods, revising the curriculum to highlight practical skills, and increasing social support can significantly improve the English language learning skill. These perceptions are mainly applicable for under-resourced areas like Nushki and recommend guidelines for educational improvement and teacher development.

Translanguaging has opened up a range of insights into contemporary language use, the chapter explains about languages, bilingualism, and language mixing. Bilingualism is concerned with social practices, language in real life, discrimination, access to resources, and inequality. Neither a dystopian approach to monolithic English nor a utopian focus on varieties of English can account for the complex relations between English and its users. The dilemma is how to acknowledge the debt owed to this tradition—the critical analytic approach of Marx and the hermeneutic project of Heidegger, for example—while also provincializing it in relation to Indian history, institutions, and cultures. The activist part of translingual activism brings the notion of resourceful speakers into conversation with a longer history of critical practice, with a perspective that acknowledges the politics of language and education and seeks to address and transform social, cultural, and economic inequalities.