16 - THE US ENERGY SITUATION

The U.S. Department of Energy and the energy ministries of the western hemisphere are working to create a strategy to eliminate the barriers (regulatory, fiscal, cultural, and technical) to increased private sector investment in the energy sector, particularly the natural gas sector. Their efforts recognize the environmental benefits of natural gas, its abundance in Latin America, the high risk and cost of cross-border infrastructure development, and the increased competition for investment capital faced by the energy sector. This paper describes this effort and provides its history, context and current status, explores the issues, lists the players, articulates the vision, and outlines a strategy. The Western Hemispheric Natural Gas Strategy has four goals and these are described in the paper:to attract private capital for gas infrastructure projectsto enable development of energy markets where gas can compete on an equal basis with other fuelsto facilitate efficient use of natural gas throughout the Hemisphereto promote regional gas projects and regional energy trade. This information should interest private sector operators and investors currently active in Latin America and those considering future investments; members of the private sector wishing to participate in the dialogue and the process; and consumers of oil & gas. Latin American markets are becoming increasingly attractive to private sector investors as individual countries make constitutional changes that permit privatization and/or commercialization of indigenous oil & gas resources, yet risk remains high. This effort by the energy ministries of the western hemisphere represents a unique partnership between nations, between the public and private sectors, between producers and consumers of energy, especially natural gas, and between the energy sector and investors. This effort toward greater transparency and stability of the regulatory, fiscal, and cultural regimes currently in place within the western hemisphere will reduce risk and increase returns on investments. Introduction Recent focus by the governments of the western hemisphere on environmental and other issues has highlighted the interdependence of energy production and environmental protection. Protection of the environment is, of course necessary and important, and energy production is also necessary and important. Hence world leaders face the struggle of balancing the need to protect a vulnerable ecosystem with the need for energy to heat homes, power industries and businesses, run cars, and generally fuel the economy. The United States is particularly dependent on energy. especially fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas. And US citizens are especially vigilant in environmental protection. So, US leaders must be especially sensitive to the need to balance environmental protection with the energy dependence of the nation. For the US, however, the issue is complicated by the fact that it cannot produce all the energy it consumes. This situation forces the US to import the deficit. Currently, 7.5 MM BOPD are imported as are 7 BCF of natural gas. This dependence especially on foreign oil causes the US to be concerned about the stability of that foreign source of supply. One way to address this concern is to diversify both the source of supply, and the type of energy used. Partnership with the countries of the western hemisphere is one strategy for diversifying the sources of supply. Increasing the use of natural gas is one strategy for diversifying the type of energy that is used. One mechanism for hemispheric cooperation is the Summit of the Americas process. This process represents an important opportunity for balancing environmental protection with energy production, and is the subject of this paper. The 1994 Summit of the Americas focused on many issues affecting the western hemisphere, but the issues of interest for this paper are the action items developed under the principle of sustainable energy use that promote economic growth while protecting the environment. This paper explores the Summit of the Americas process, and because it is a process, reports on progress towards its goals as of June 1997. The paper begins with an overview of the global energy situation, with particular emphasis on the energy situation of the western hemisphere. P. 151^

In recent years, demand for energy has surged. This unrelenting increase has helped fuel global economic growth but placed considerable pressure on suppliers buffeted by geopolitics, violent weather conditions and other potentially disruptive factors. On the demand side, increased energy security and environmental concerns may lead to changes in consuming countries’ energy policies. These uncertainties have been reflected in the market through volatility and high prices. Is the world running out of energy? Where will future supplies come from? Will adequate investment be made to make available adequate energy supplies to meet future demand? What role will governments play? The oil and gas resources of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) will be critical to meeting the world’s growing appetite for energy. A large share of the world’s remaining reserves lie in that region. They are relatively under-exploited and so there is considerable potential for increasing production. But there is considerable uncertainty about the pace at which investment in the region’s upstream industry will actually occur, how quickly production capacity will expand and, given rising domestic energy needs, how much of the expected increase in supply will be available for export. The implications for both MENA producers and consuming countries are profound. This paper draws on the main findings of the World Energy Outlook 2005, published by the International Energy Agency. The 2005 Outlook assesses quantitatively the prospects for global energy markets through to 2030, with a special focus on the Middle East and North Africa. In addition, it analyses the possible impact of deferred investment in the region’s energy sector and also considers the potential effects of changing policies in consumer countries to address energy security and environmental concerns. The World Energy Outlook 2006 will build on this analysis and develop it even further. Global Energy Trends Global energy needs are likely to continue to grow steadily for at least the next two-and-ahalf decades. If governments stick with current policies – the underlying premise of the World Energy Outlook’s Reference Scenario – the world’s energy needs would be more than 50% higher in 2030 than today, an average annual growth rate of 1.6%. More than twothirds of the growth in world energy use will come from the developing countries, where economic and population growth are highest.

Limited supplies of fossil fuels and concerns about global warming have created a strong desire to solve the resource issue in the age "beyond petroleum". This reference book, from the "Green Chemistry Series", contains the essential areas of green chemistry and sustainability in modern economies. It is the first book to outline the contribution of chemistry, and of renewable chemical or biological resources, to the sustainability concept and to the potential resolution of the world's energy problems. It describes the current status of technical research, and industrial application, as well as the potential of biomass as a renewable resource for energy generation in power stations, as alternative fuels, and for various uses in chemistry. It outlines the historical routes of the sustainability concept and specifies sustainability in metrics, facts and figures. The book is written by European experts from academia, industry and investment banking who are world leaders in research and technology regarding sustainability, alternative energies and renewable resources. The sustainability aspects covered include: * consumer behaviour and demands, lifestyles and mega trends, and their impact on innovation in the industry * consumer industry requirements and their impact on suppliers * emerging paradigm changes in raw material demand, availability, sourcing, and logistics * the contribution of the industry to restore the life support systems of the Earth * socially responsible banking and investment * sustainability metrics The book highlights the potential of the different forms of renewable raw materials including: * natural fats and oils * plant-based biologically active ingredients * industrial starch * sucrose * natural rubber * wood * natural fibres It also covers the actual status of biomass usage for green energy generation, green transportation, green chemistry and sustainable nutrition and consumer goods, and it depicts the potentials of green solvents and white biotechnology for modern synthesis and manufacturing technologies. The book is aimed at technical and marketing people in industry, universities and institutions as well as readers in administrations and NGOs. The book will also be of value to the worldwide public interested in sustainability issues and strategies as well as others interested in the practical means that are being used to reduce the environmental impact of chemical processes and products, to further eco-efficiency, and to advance the utilization of renewable resources.

Production of high grade fuels and chemicals from catalytic pyrolysis of biomass

The rising influence of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from burning fossil fuels on climate change has led to a demand for clean energy. The only consequence of H2's combustion is water vapor, making it a clean energy source. As a clean energy source, hydrogen contributes significantly to energy and environmental sustainability and helps mitigate the world's energy problem and climate change. Microalgae have recently been found to hold tremendous promise for producing biodiesel and biohydrogen. Under certain conditions, sunlight is used by green microalgae to split water particles, resulting in the production of molecular hydrogen and oxygenation. With an emphasis on green microalgae, this review outlined possible algal strains for hydrogen production. In addition, a comprehensive review procedure aimed at presenting the importance of using microalgae to produce green hydrogen. More significantly, this review included an overview of present constraints and potential future directions for the sustainable synthesis of biohydrogen from microalgae.

An embargo on the export of Australia's vast uranium mineral resources has been in force for several years. Pressures to lift the embargo are mounting. A Royal Commission has enquired into all aspects of uranium mining and exports. This paper, modified to some extent, forms part of a submission to this enquiry. It is suggested that nuclear power be accepted as an interim solution to the world's energy problems. the plutonium fuelled breeder technology as the ultimate solution is rejected. Meanwhile the striking of a $750 (Australian) export levy per tonne of U3O8 will provide the funds for research and development in the use of renewable energy sources. Restrictive conditions imposed on the sale of uranium minerals and their beneficiated derivatives include guarantees against the separation of plutonium and the development and use of a plutonium technology.

An embargo on the export of Australia's vast uranium mineral resources has been in force for several years. Pressures to lift the embargo are mounting. A Royal Commission has enquired into all aspects of uranium mining and exports. This paper, modified to some extent, forms part of a submission to this enquiry. It is suggested that nuclear power be accepted as an interim solution to the world's energy problems. the plutonium fuelled breeder technology as the ultimate solution is rejected. Meanwhile the striking of a $750 (Australian) export levy per tonne of U3O8 will provide the funds for research and development in the use of renewable energy sources. Restrictive conditions imposed on the sale of uranium minerals and their beneficiated derivatives include guarantees against the separation of plutonium and the development and use of a plutonium technology.

The conversion of solar energy to sustainable energy sources is a significant field of study for the relief of the world's energy problems, and among the various strategies developed, semiconductor photocatalysts have received significant attention as a promising candidate due to their attractive efficiency, mild reaction conditions, and low cost. The enhancement of such photocatalysts with plasmonic materials, by virtue of the Schottky junction and localized surface plasma resonance phenomenon, could facilitate the rapid progress in enhancement of photocatalytic efficiency under visible light irradiation. To further improve photocatalytic efficiency, scientists look to nature for inspiration, culminating in the evolution of complex hierarchical structures in order to fully utilize the potential of solar energy. In the past decade, there has been significant progress in the development of bio‐inspired plasmonic photocatalysts, such as antireflective surfaces, 3D photonic structures, and branched structures. This review describes the state‐of‐the‐art bio‐inspired light manipulation approaches, as well as future challenges in solar energy harvesting by plasmonic photocatalysts.

Climate change is an energy problem — we cannot solve climate change without solving energy. Energy change is not just a matter of convincing the world's energy producers to alter the resources they use; or manufacturers to focus on energy Efficiency; or consumers to alter their energy use behaviours. To meet greenhouse gas and particulate emissions targets, and manage water consumption, can never be merely a political, regulatory question, and arguably this would anyway require more organised, committed global governance than currently in evidence. The privately owned energy sector cannot be assumed to be in sufficient good health to respond to regulatory or market change, despite excellent stock market performance. It could be said that the strong value of shares in energy companies and a recently terminated decade of mounting energy commodity prices have created a distraction, a diversion from fundamental fault lines. Studies into energy increasingly alight upon concerns about the projections for future global energy production and consumption, and questions about the life cycle renewal of energy supply and infrastructure in an atmosphere of low economic growth.

Energy-related data for China, India, the United States, and the world were analyzed for the period 2005–2035 to gain insight on (1) the evolution of energy intensity, (2) the pattern of carbon-dioxide equivalent (CO 2 ) emitted per unit of GDP, (3) reductions in the carbon intensity required to achieve CO 2 emissions comparable to the 1990 Kyoto Protocol's baseline year, (4) key obstacles to transitioning to a world's economy less dependent on fossil fuels. Key findings are: (1) the world's total primary energy use is expected to increase by 56% in the period 2005–2035, (2) the world's rate of GDP growth outpaces its rate of increase in energy use because of a decrease in the energy/GDP ratio, (3) the world's carbon intensity in 2035 must undergo a near 4-fold reduction to achieve emissions equal to those of 1990, (4) there are major obstacles to transitioning to a world much less reliant on fossil fuels.

Despite the drive for increased environmental protection and the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), coal, oil, and natural gas use continues to dominate Japan’s energy mix. In light of this issue, this research assessed the position of natural gas, oil, and coal energy use in Japan’s environmental mitigation efforts from the perspective of sustainable development with respect to economic growth between 1965 and 2019. In this regard, the study employs Bayer and Hanck cointegration, fully modified Ordinary Least Square (FMOLS), and dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS) to investigate these interconnections. The empirical findings from this study revealed that the utilization of natural gas, oil, and coal energy reduces the sustainability of the environment with oil consumption having the most significant impact. Furthermore, the study validates the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis in Japan. The outcomes of the Gradual shift causality showed that CO2 emissions can predict economic growth, while oil, coal, and energy consumption can predict CO2 emissions in Japan. Given Japan’s ongoing energy crisis, this innovative analysis provides valuable policy insights to stakeholders and authorities in the nation’s energy sector.

This paper reviews the evolution of manufacturing energy use in eight industrialized nations: West Germany, Denmark, France, Japan, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Manufacturing energy use fell in these nations by 16% between 1973 and 1988 while manufacturing value-added increased by 41%. Reduced energy intensities in six industry groups -paper and pulp; chemicals; stone, clay and glass; iron and steel; nonferrous metals; and other manufacturing - were the primary source of this apparent decoupling of energy use and output. Between 1973 and 1988, intensity reductions would have driven down sectoral energy use by 32% if the level and composition of output had remained constant. Structural change, or shifts in the product mix, would have reduced energy use by 11% if the total level of output and the energy intensities of each industry group had remained constant.

There were several indications that the current global order was being challenged during the past few years. Two key indicators of the stability of the current global order are the energy sector and the strength of the US Dollar hegemony. For example, the sliding price of oil experienced in 2014/2015 affected both the energy sector and the US Dollar hegemony. If it continued unabated, the crisis witnessed in the energy sector may have paved the way for the Global South to have taken a leading role in the global order. (An important backdrop to the current energy crisis was the global shift in military and political power towards the South, most particularly towards East Asia during this period. This shift was analysed in combination with the relative declining (economic) power and (moral) legitimacy of the United States (USA) and the move towards a more multipolar world order in which the major emerging states of the Global South—especially China—could no longer be excluded). In addition, new political power blocks and economic systems were being put in place which may have represented, on the hand, the manner in which the global order was changing but also, on the other hand, indicated changes in the global economy and future energy use. These new developments could all advance the progress and political power of the Global South and may present an actual threat to the global order led by the West. Recent measures by the USA to strengthen its economy and bolster its military powers in the South-China Sea may be seen as counter attempts to maintain the current global order. The same may be said about the aggressive sanctions on Russia by the West.

PurposeThe discussion of climate change and energy problems is generally based on the assumption that technical solutions are possible and that the task is essentially to determine the most effective ways. This view relies heavily on the expectation that renewable energy sources can be substituted for fossil fuels. The purpose of this paper is to improve on an earlier attempt to estimate the investment cost that would be involved in deriving total world energy supply from renewable sources.Design/methodology/approachThis discussion improves on an earlier attempt to estimate the investment cost that would be involved in deriving total world energy supply from renewable sources. It takes common assumptions re future energy demand and estimates of future output and capital costs of major renewable energy sources and explores four strategies for supplying global energy demand in 2050.FindingsThis paper finds that the greenhouse and energy problems cannot be solved by action on the supply side, i.e. by technical developments which promise to provide quantities taken for granted in energy‐intensive societies. This general “limits to growth” perspective is that these and the other major global problems can only be solved by action on the demand side, i.e. by moving to ways, values, institutions and systems which greatly reduce the need for materials, energy and ecological resources.Research limitations/implicationsConfidence in the conclusions is limited mainly by the lack of evidence at this point in time on the actual difficulties set by the problem of integrating the intermittent sources, and the resulting need for redundant plant.Practical implicationsEach of the four strategies explored requires large amounts of redundant plant to be able to cope with the intermittency problem. Each leads to total system capital costs which are well beyond affordable levels.Social implicationsThe findings add to the general “limits to growth” case that solutions to the global energy and other sustainability problems cannot be achieved within consumer‐capitalist society but must be sought via dramatic reductions in production, consumption and GDP. This would require radical system change from the commitment to growth, market systems and affluent lifestyles, to what is described as The Simpler Way.Originality/valueIt does not seem that this approach has previously been taken to the specific issue of the potential and limits of renewable energy. Little or no attention has been given to the thesis that global sustainability and justice require transition to some kind of Simpler Way.

Energy issues are closely related to the development of human society and economy. Embodied energy is the total direct and indirect energy consumption required for the production of goods and services. In the context of the intensifying development of economic globalization and prosperity of international trade, embodied energy is considered as a better indicator to comprehensively reflect the nature of a country’s energy use than the direct energy use. The development of trade in value added (TiVA) accounting and global value chain theory has brought new ideas to embodied energy research. This study applies TiVA accounting to the study of embodied energy and establishes a complete framework to decompose the sources, destinations, and transfer routes of embodied energy in a country’s exports, and comprehensively depicts the embodied energy flows in China’s exports at the country and sector levels as an instance. The results show that China exports large amounts of embodied domestic energy use, and export is an important factor for the rapid growth of China’s energy and emissions. At the country level, the United States and EU28 are traditional major importers of China, and developing countries, such as Brazil, India, and Indonesia, are emerging markets. China’s embodied energy flows to different importers vary in terms of trade patterns, flow routes, and the embodied domestic energy intensities. At the sector level, the light industry and the services create more benefits, whereas manufacturing, such as chemicals and metal products, consumes more energy, and there is a mismatch between the main sectors that create economic benefits from exports and the main sectors that consume energy for exports. These results indicate that embodied energy of China’s exports has a great impact on global energy consumption and carbon emission, and the optimizing of China’s export embodied energy structure is conducive to global energy conservation and emission reduction. This article strongly suggests the importance of the global value chain decomposition framework in embodied energy research.