Asia, gender and migration

Vaccination is widely recognized as a cost-effective public health intervention. However, vaccination rates among pregnant women have been decreasing globally, especially in contexts of structural social and health inequalities. Hence, the purpose of this study was to unveil access barriers to vaccination plans and vaccine hesitancy among pregnant women, both locals and international migrants, in three large cities in Chile. A multiple Case Study was conducted. Through snowballing technique, local and migrant pregnant women or women with toddlers (i.e., recently pregnant) were invited to participate (n = 28, 14 Chileans and 14 international migrants). Semi-structured interviews were held online based on a pre-defined guide and lasted for 60-90min. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim and analyzed thematically. The project was approved by the Scientific Ethics Committee at UDD. There was general consensus that the country has a very strong immunization program, along with a well-established vaccination culture and compliance with the national immunization plan. Participants identified two main domains of barriers to accessing vaccination plans: (i) structural barriers to vaccination plans and (ii) perceived subjective barriers responsible for vaccination hesitancy. The first dimension included: (i.a) economic constraints and lack of social support, and (i.b) unique access barriers faced by migrant women. The second dimension included: (ii.a) insufficient vaccine information, (ii.b) fears to potential adverse effects, and (ii.c) disrespectful or neglectful treatment. Perceived facilitators were the following three: (i) timely and comprehensive access to information, (ii) free provision of vaccines, and (iii) preferential care at health centers. There are multiple structural barriers to accessing vaccination plans among pregnant women in Chile, as well as perceived subjective barriers related to vaccination hesitancy. These barriers underscore the need for strengthening access to quality and timely information about the vaccination plan during pregnancy, improving client-provider communication, ensuring dignified treatment, and training healthcare workers about health rights of migrant pregnant women in the country.

BackgroundInternal migration, a consequence of the demographic transition towards urbanization driven by globalization, represents a particular public health challenge. Change in residence from one sociocultural geographic context to another, with not only economic implications, but also changes in women’s long-established relationships of family interdependence, influences gender relations and can influence Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) against women. Different migratory trajectories may be related to IPV. The aim of this study was to identify the association between internal migration and physical and/or sexual violence against women in the last 12 months.MethodsA secondary analytical cross-sectional analysis of the publicly accessible 2015–2017 Demographic and Family Health Survey (DHS) was performed. The outcome variable was reported physical and/or sexual violence inflicted by the partner (IPV) during the last 12 months. Exposure variable was internal migration, operationalized from three questions: current place of residence, principal place of residence before 12 years of age and number of years of residence in the current place. Migrants were classified as those who reported having lived for 5 years or more in the current location and were categorized as rural-rural migrants, urban-urban migrants, urban–rural migrants and rural–urban migrants, recent migrants and nonmigrants those who resided in the same place all their lives. To identify the association between internal migration and physical violence, a generalized linear model (GLM) of the family and the log Poisson link log option was used, and the results are presented as prevalence ratios (PRs). A crude model and a model adjusted for confounding variables were performed.ResultsRural–urban migrant women had a 15.0% higher probability of experiencing IPV than nonmigrant women (PRa 1.15, 95% CI 1.03–1.29, p = 0.015), while the probability of experiencing IPV in the last 12 months for urban–rural, rural-rural,urban-urban migrantand recent migrant women was not significantly different from that of nonmigrant women.ConclusionRural–urban migration among women of childbearing age is a factor associated with a higher probability of IPV in the last 12 months. The identification of women with this rural–urban migration pattern could help prioritize those that may experience a greater probability of physical and/or sexual violence in Peru, it must be studied if this pattern is the same in other countries.

Data about migration flows are largely inconsistent across countries, typically outdated, and often inexistent. Despite the importance of migration as a driver of demographic change, there is limited availability of migration statistics. Generally, researchers rely on census data to indirectly estimate flows. However, little can be inferred for specific years between censuses and for recent trends. The increasing availability of geolocated data from online sources has opened up new opportunities to track recent trends in migration patterns and to improve our understanding of the relationships between internal and international migration. In this paper, we use geolocated data for about 500,000 users of the social network website Twitter. The data are for users in OECD countries during the period May 2011- April 2013. We evaluated, for the subsample of users who have posted geolocated tweets regularly, the geographic movements within and between countries for independent periods of four months, respectively. Since Twitter users are not representative of the OECD population, we cannot infer migration rates at a single point in time. However, we proposed a difference-in-differences approach to reduce selection bias when we infer trends in out-migration rates for single countries. Our results indicate that our approach is relevant to address two longstanding questions in the migration literature. First, our methods can be used to predict turning points in migration trends, which are particularly relevant for migration forecasting. Second, geolocated Twitter data can substantially improve our understanding of the relationships between internal and international migration. Our analysis relies uniquely on publicly available data that could be potentially available in real time and that could be used to monitor migration trends. The Web Science community is well-positioned to address, in future work, a number of methodological and substantive questions that we discuss in this article.

The labor-market assimilation hypothesis predicts poorer initial labor-market outcomes among immigrants followed by convergence toward the outcomes of the native-born working-age population with time lived in the receiving country. We investigate the applicability of this hypothesis to migrant women’s labor-force participation in Europe. We compare labor-force participation rate (LFPR) gaps between migrant and native-born women in nine European countries, and examine how these LFPR gaps change with migrant women’s additional years in the receiving country. Consistent with the assimilation hypothesis, the LFPRs of migrant women in the “old” migrant-receiving countries of Western Europe begin much lower than for otherwise-comparable native-born women and converge, although not always completely, toward the LFPRs of native-born women with additional years lived in the country. In the “new” migrant-receiving countries of Southern Europe, however, the LFPRs of migrant women at all durations of residence are similar to those of native-born women. Additional descriptive evidence of high unemployment and under-employment and of difficulty achieving family work balance among Western European migrant women points toward receiving-country context as a major explanation for these empirical patterns.

“We at least say we are equal”: Gender equality and class in healthcare professionals’ discursive framing of migrant mothers

There is heated debate in contemporary Indonesia about the rights and regulation of transnational women migrants, specifically about the ‘costs to families’ of women working overseas, but little attention has been given to women migrants' own views of family or women's own motivations for migration. In this article, which is based on field work in a migrant-sending community in West Java, I focus on migrant women's narratives of transnational migration and employment as domestic workers in Saudi Arabia. I contribute to the literature on gender and transnational migration by exploring migrants' consumption desires and practices as reflective not only of commoditized exchange but also of affect and sentiment. In addition, I show in detail how religion and class inflect low-income women's narrations of morally appropriate mothering practices. In conclusion, I suggest that interpreting these debates from the ground up can contribute towards understanding the larger struggles animating the Indonesian state's contemporary relationships with women and Islam.

Migrant and refugee settlement in Australia is influenced by individual, social, political, and economic factors. During periods of resettlement, women and girls are often vulnerable to abuse and exploitation as well as exclusion from opportunities such as paid work. The vulnerability of migrant women is most pronounced among temporary visa holders. Migrant and refugee women have a lower rate of workforce participation compared to migrant and refugee men and are less likely to be employed than Australian-born women. During resettlement women and girls may experience cultural isolation due to traditional gender roles and expectations, which can be more pronounced in less diverse, regional communities. These women are commonly subject to domestic and family violence as well as forced marriage. A lack of trust in traditional authorities, such as police, and fear of deportation can hinder help-seeking behaviours, particularly in family situations. Despite the well-documented challenges for migrants and refugee, there is evidence of communitydriven support and also examples of how migrant women contribute to their new communities. This chapter seeks to discuss the enablers and barriers to achieving greater gender equality for migrant and refugee women in regional Australia using a social ecologic framework and gender–based lens.

This article focuses on the situation of women migrants displaced by the Three Gorges Project (TGP) in China. It examines the participation and types of work undertaken by women migrants in the resettlement process, the strategies of the government and women migrants in coping with risks (especially impoverishment) that migrant families face after physical displacement, and some gender-related issues relevant to planning in the TGP. Data show that women migrants have limited opportunities to participate in the decision-making process of displacement. Following resettlement, women migrants face difficulties in finding employment in the non-agricultural sector while those who remain in the agricultural sector encounter extreme difficulties in attempting to engage in new agricultural practices in their new environments. The study found that a gendered perspective in planning for livelihood reconstruction and skills training is generally inadequate or absent.

1. Gender-based Immigration Visa? On Rationality of a Legislative Innovation Binod Khadria 2. Migrant Women at the Discourse-policy nexus: Indian Domestic Workers in Saudi Arabia S. Irudaya Rajan and Jolin Joseph 3. Stepping into the Man's Shoes: Emigrant Domestic Workers as Breadwinners and the Gender Norm in Kerala Praveena Kodoth 4. Economic Migration of Women: Challenges and Policy with Reference to Indian Emigration to the Gulf Basant Potnuru 5. Addressing the Missing Link: Women Domestic Workers Migrating from South Asia to the Gulf Smita Mitra 6. Vulnerability of Women in International Marriage Migration Renuka Mishra 7. International Mobility of Skilled Women: Overview of Trends and Issues Sudeshna Ghosh and Rupa Chanda 8. Indian International Students: A Gender Perspective Gunjan Sondhi 9. Gendered Mobilities: Negotiating Educational strategies in Kerala Sara Lang 10. Reducing Vulnerabilities of 'Women in Migration': Cross-border migration Experience within South Asia Nabesh Bohidar and Navneet Kaur 11. Adivasi Women in India's Migration Story Indrani Mazumdar 12. Gender Dimensions of Migration in Urban India Nishikant Singh, Kunal Keshri, R.B. Bhagat 13. Confined to the Margins: Female Migrant Workers in Urban Areas Neetha N. 14. Understanding Female Migration Pattern in India: Exploring the Driving Forces Sandhya Rani Mahapatro and K. S. James 15. The Missing Men: Sex Ratios and Migration Chimay Tumbe 16. Survival, Struggle and the Promise of a new Future: Living and Working Conditions of Migrant workers in Kerala S. Irudaya Rajan and Sumeetha M. 17. Health Seeking Behavior among the Interstate Migrant Labourers Sreejini Jaya and Ravi Prasad Varma 18. From Kerala to Kerala via the Gulf: Emigration Experiences of Return Emigrants K. C. Zachariah and S. Irudaya Rajan 19. Transnational Flows: Extent, Patterns and Implications for Gujarat Biplab Dhak 20. Wage Differentials between Indian Migrant workers in the Gulf and Non-migrant workers in India S. Irudaya Rajan, B. A. Prakash, and Arya Suresh 21. The Disposable People: Irregular and Undocumented Migrants Bernard D' Sami

It is essential to explore the role of gender while analysing internal migration in Albania to account for the differing experiences of men and women. Quantitative studies suggest that Albanian internal migration is pioneered by men, with women merely acceding to their wishes. This article addresses the undervalued role of women in the academic discourse concerning migration in Albania. Utilizing ethnographic research techniques, it explores the role of women migrating from rural to urban areas as part of a larger household and examines the coping and negotiating strategies used for survival in the city. Our findings reveal that women actively participate in the rural-to-urban migration process, including the initial decision to migrate and the choice of destination. Women's narratives provide evidence of specific emancipation strategies through which they express themselves and their new ways of living. Women adjust to and challenge their new urban environment through gaining paid employment and expanding their social networks, as well as experience emancipation through daughters and by changing their appearance, achieving varying degrees of personal and social prosperity.

Of the approximately 281 million international migrants and 35.3 million refugees around the world, almost half are women. These individuals experience significant stress due to language barriers, financial difficulties, poor living and working conditions, and discrimination. Consequently, concerns related to sexuality may receive lower priority despite their significant impact on overall well-being. This scoping review aims to review the sexual function of migrant and refugee women and identify any knowledge gaps in the field. We conducted a scoping review following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses extension for Scoping Reviews). We searched online databases-Medline, Embase, Emcare, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane-and gray literature, with no restrictions on year of publication, language, or study design. Utilizing Covidence software, 2 authors screened and extracted data from studies based on predetermined eligibility criteria. A thematic analysis was executed, and findings were reported descriptively. Initially, we identified 5615 studies; after screening titles, abstracts, and full texts, we ultimately included 12 studies. The review identified a limited body of research with various unvalidated tools. Moreover, these studies yielded heterogeneous results: migrant women reported less sexual knowledge, experience, and liberal attitudes, resulting in lower rates of desire and arousal as compared with nonmigrants. Some studies showed lower sexual function in migrants, while others found no significant differences between migrants and nonmigrants. The assimilation into Western cultures may influence migrants' sexual attitudes and behaviors. Factors such as education and gender role ideology can also significantly affect sexual function among migrant populations. This review underscores the limitations in previous sexual function research, emphasizing the need for a more inclusive approach. It also offers valuable insights for codesigning programs to address sexual dysfunction among migrant and refugee women, improving their well-being. Future research should prioritize neglected populations and create culturally sensitive interventions to reduce sexual health disparities in migrants.

BackgroundThe prevalence rate of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is one of the highest in United Arab Emirates (UAE), however data for the expatriate population is limited. This study aimed to identify the prevalence of T2DM amongst migrant women and test the hypothesis that acculturation (measured by years of residency) is associated with an increased risk of T2DM.MethodsThis was a cross-sectional study and we recruited a representative sample (n = 599, 75% participation rate) of migrant women aged 18 years and over in Al Ain, UAE. The American Diabetes Association criteria were used to diagnose T2DM. An adapted WHO STEPS questionnaire was used to collect socio-demographic, lifestyle and clinical data. Logistic regression analysis was performed to identify correlates of T2DM including length of UAE residence.ResultsThe mean age of participants was 34.1 (± 9.5) years. Of the study participants, based on HbA1C levels, 18.6% (95% CI: 13.9–24.4) had prediabetes and 10.7% (95% CI: 7.2–15.6) had T2DM. Prevalence of prediabetes was 8.5% for Filipinos, 16.7% for Arabs and 30.3% for South Asians. Similarly the prevalence of T2DM was 1.7% for Filipinos, 12.2% for Arabs and 16.7% for South Asians. Significant correlates of overall T2DM (measured and known diabetes) included length of UAE residence for more than 10 years (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] 2.74, 95% CI: 1.21–6.20), age ≥40 years (AOR = 3.48, 95% CI: 1.53–7.87) and South Asian nationality (AOR 2.10, 95% CI: 0.94–4.70).ConclusionDiabetes is a significant public health problem among migrant women in the UAE, particularly for South Asians. Longer length of residence in the UAE is associated with a higher prevalence of diabetes.

Despite reports of high levels of violence among women migrants in Central America, limited evidence exists regarding the health and safety of migrant sex workers in Central America. This study is based on 16 months of field research (November 2012–February 2014), including ethnographic fieldwork, in-depth interviews, and focus groups conducted with 52 internal and international migrant female sex workers in Tecún Umán and Quetzaltenango, Guatemala, key transit and destination communities for both international and internal migrants. The analysis explored migration-related determinants of susceptibility to violence experienced by migrant sex workers across different phases of migration. Violence in home communities and economic considerations were key drivers of migration. Unsafe transit experiences (eg undocumented border crossings) and negative interactions with authorities in destination settings (eg extortion) contributed to migrant sex workers’ susceptibility to violence, while enhanced access to information on immigration policies and greater migration and sex work experience were found to enhance agency and resilience. Findings suggest the urgent need for actions that promote migrant sex workers’ safety in communities of origin, transit, and destination, and programmes aimed at preventing and addressing human rights violations within the context of migration and sex work.

The Costs and Returns of Human Migration

The prevalence of infection with human T-cell leukaemia virus (HTLV-I) was studied in Madang Province on the north coast of Papua New Guinea. Serum specimens collected from non-pregnant women in 17 villages were tested for anti-HTLV-I by gelatin particle agglutination screening and confirmed by immunofluorescence and Western blotting. Overall, 13.9% of subjects were antibody-positive, with the prevalence of antibodies varying from less than 10% to 30% in villages situated less than 10 km apart. Two groups of migrant women were identified, and in both a parity-related increase in antibody prevalence which occurred only after marriage suggested that the predominant mode of transmission in migrant women was sexual. There was no parity-associated increase in anti-HTLV-I in indigenous women, and in contrast to migrant women, nulliparous indigenous women had a high prevalence of antibody (16.8% vs. 0%; p = 0.005). Vertical transmission cannot be excluded in indigenous women. No correlation was detected between the prevalence of anti-HTLV-I and a variety of indices of malarial infection.