Implicit and Explicit Memory for Spatial Information in Alzheimer’s Disease

Using the Process Dissociation Procedure: The Meaning and Value of Comparable Base Rates

The functional changes concerning memory deficits in dural arteriovenous fistula (dAVF) brain are inadequately understood. This study aimed to understand the functional connectivity alterations of brain regions widely affirmed for explicit and implicit memory functions in dAVF patients (DP) and look into the frequency effects of the altered functional networks. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI) analysis was done in the memory-associated regions of 30 DP and 30 healthy controls (HC). Frequency decomposition was used to determine potential frequency-dependent functional connectivity changes. They underwent neuropsychological tests and were correlated with changes in memory networks compared with HC. The results showed weaker functional connectivity among the medial temporal lobe and sub-regions in DP suggestive of dysfunction of explicit and implicit memory functions, which corroborated with the positive correlation between memory scores and hippocampal-parahippocampal connectivity of DP, along with a significant group difference of lower memory and cognitive performance in DP assessed by neuropsychological tests. A frequency-dependent study of the altered rsFC revealed lower functional connectivity strength and impaired neural coupling manifested at some sub-band frequencies indicative of disturbed cortical rhythm in DP. This pilot study gives insights into significant intrinsic functional connectivity changes in the memory regions of the dAVF brain. The results may have clinical implications in the choice of interventional management of dAVF and can impact clinical decision making for realizable prevention of progressive memory impairment and irreversible brain damage in such patients.

Encoding and retrieval are two important phases of memory.Encoding produces memory engraved and retrieval reactivates previously encoded information.The approach to the relationship between encoding and retrieval is meaningful for the better understanding of the nature of memory.As for explicit memory,the relation of encoding and retrieval has been investigated by many researchers who have found out that the performance of a secondary task during encoding reduced the later memory performance,but the division of the attention in the same way during retrieval had virtually no effect on memory performance,which indicated an asymmetry between encoding and retrieval processes.With respect to implicit memory,an asymmetry was also found in one of our previous studies(Meng Guo,2006),but the asymmetry is somewhat different from that in explicit memory,that is,the performance of a concurrent task during encoding had no effect on later task performance,but interference during retrieval disrupted priming,and reduced task performance.In order to clarify the issues we conducted an ERP experiment.The experiment was conducted with 16 undergraduate students as subjects and Chinese characters as stimuli.The experiment adopted a study-to-test paradigm,in which participants performed a "shallow"(color) study task or a "deep"(pleasant) study task,followed by either a lexical decision(implicit) test(section 1) or a recognition(explicit) test(section 2).In interference task participants were asked to account the total number of "+" in a regulated orientation which appeared with a word,and was performed concurrently with either the encoding or the retrieval phase of the memory task for encoding interference condition or retrieval interference condition.The results showed that:(1) the effects of interference to encoding in implicit memory test were different from that to retrieval.Interference during encoding had virtually no effect on N400 or P600 old/new ERP components,but interference during retrieval significantly reduced N400 old/new and P600 old/new components,which abolished behavior priming.(2) The effects of interference to encoding on ERP components in explicit memory test were different from that to retrieval.Interference during encoding had significant influence on later P600 old/new effect,but interference during retrieval did not produce such effect.The results confirmed the finding of Meng Guo(2006),that is,interference during encoding had effect on explicit memory,but left implicit memory intact.Interference during retrieval affected implicit memory,but had little effect on explicit memory.So the relationship between encoding and retrieval was different between implicit and explicit memory,thus providing further evidence on the dissociation between implicit and explicit memory.

Background and objectives: Implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) memory associations with drugs have been examined primarily using verbal cues. However, drug seeking, drug use behaviors, and relapse in chronic cocaine and other drug users are frequently triggered by viewing substance-related visual cues in the environment. We thus examined implicit and explicit memory for drug picture cues to understand the relative extent to which conscious and unconscious memory facilitation of visual drug cues occurs during cocaine dependence. Methods: Memory for drug-related and neutral picture cues was assessed in 14 inpatient cocaine-dependent polydrug users and a comparison group of 21 young adults with limited drug experience (n = 35). Participants completed picture cue exposure, free recall and recognition tasks to assess explicit memory, and a repetition priming task to assess implicit memory. Results: Drug cues, compared to neutral cues, were better explicitly recalled and implicitly primed, and especially so in the cocaine group. In contrast, neutral cues were better explicitly recognized, and especially in the control group. Conclusion: Certain forms of explicit and implicit memory for drug cues were enhanced in cocaine users compared to controls when memory was tested a short time following cue exposure. Enhanced unconscious memory processing of drug cues in chronic cocaine users may be a behavioral manifestation of heightened drug cue salience that supports drug seeking and taking. There may be value in expanding intervention techniques to utilize cocaine users’ implicit memory system.

Perceptual identification task points to continuity between implicit memory and recall

The author introduces implicit (versus explicit) memory to examine advertising effects on brand choice. Whereas explicit memory is demonstrated by the conscious recollection of an event, implicit memory is inferred by an improvement in some task performance as the result of having experienced the event. This research shows that memory-based choice benefits from advertising that enhances conceptually driven implicit memory whereas stimulus-based choice benefits from advertising that enhances perceptually driven implicit memory. The findings provide evidence that the two types of implicit memory and explicit memory are distinct constructs of memory; the findings also suggest that implicit memory measures may be more useful indicators of advertising effectiveness than explicit memory measures.

It is well documented that explicit (declarative, conscious) memory declines in normal aging. Studies have shown a progressive reduction in this form of memory with age, and healthy older adults (typically aged 65+ years) usually perform worse than younger adults (typically aged 18–30 years) on laboratory tests of explicit memory such as recall and recognition. In contrast, it is less clear whether implicit (procedural, unconscious) memory declines or remains stable in normal aging. Implicit memory is evident when previous experiences affect (e.g., facilitate) performance on tasks that do not require conscious recollection of those experiences. This can manifest in rehearsed motor skills, such as playing a musical instrument, but is typically indexed in the laboratory by the greater ease with which previously studied information is processed relative to non-studied information (e.g., repetition priming). While a vast amount of research has accumulated to suggest that implicit memory remains relatively stable over the adult lifespan, and is similar in samples of young and older adults, other studies have in contrast revealed that implicit memory is subject to age-related decline. Improving methods for determining whether implicit memory declines or remains stable with age is an important goal for future research, as the issue not only has significant implications for an aging society regarding interventions likely to ameliorate the effects of age-related explicit memory decline, but can also inform our theoretical understanding of human memory systems.

High doses of opioid associated with low doses of hypnotic is a popular anaesthetic technique since the use of remifentanil has become widespread. This type of anaesthesia could result in a higher incidence of implicit memory. Ten patients were anaesthetised with a target-controlled infusion of remifentanil (target concentration of 8 ng mL(-1)) combined with a target-controlled infusion of propofol with progressive stepwise increases until loss of consciousness was reached. A tape containing 20 words was then played to the patients. Bispectral index (BIS, Aspect Medical Systems, Newton, MA, USA) was continuously monitored during the whole study period. Implicit and explicit memories were tested between 2 and 4 h after recovery. Loss of consciousness was obtained with a mean calculated propofol plasma concentration of 1.3 +/- 0.4 microg mL(-1). At this low hypnotic concentration no implicit or explicit memory was found in the three postoperative memory tests. Median (range) BIS value during word presentation was 93 (80-98). In our group of young American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) I/II patients, no explicit or implicit memory was found when the calculated concentration of propofol combined with a high concentration of remifentanil was maintained at the level associated with loss of consciousness with high BIS values.

Although patients with Alzheimer dementia (AD) have impaired explicit memory, more automatic, implicit aspects of learning and memory may be relatively preserved. However, neuropsychological tests for the assessment of implicit memory are lacking. This study examines a newly developed test, the Implicit Memory Test, in 28 patients with severe AD (mini-mental state examination 5 to 12) and 22 cognitively unimpaired matched controls (mini-mental state examination 25 to 29). The Implicit Memory Test consists of visually presented word (stem-completion) and picture (fragmented picture identification) subtests, each comprising 3 learning trials and a delayed test. Explicit memory was also assessed, using the verbal paired-associate learning subtest from the Wechsler Memory Scale and the Visual Association Test. Patients with AD obtained a floor performance on both explicit memory tests, whereas a significant learning curve was found for both the stem-completion and the fragmented pictures subtests of the Implicit Memory Test. Delayed testing on the fragmented pictures subtest showed a preserved performance that may have been mediated by implicit learning. Delayed performance on the stem-completion subtest, however, showed clear memory decay that suggests contamination by explicit memory function, at least in the controls. These findings extend the earlier results on word-stem completion and fragmented picture identification in patients with mild-to-moderate AD and indicate that residual learning capacity can be assessed in severe AD.

In 4 experiments, implicit and explicit memory for words and nonwords were compared. In Experiments 1-2 memory for words and legal nonwords (e.g., kers) was assessed with an identification (implicit) and a recognition (explicit) memory task: Robust priming was obtained for both words and nonwords, and the priming effects dissociated from explicit memory following a levels-of-processing manipulation (Experiment 1) and following a study-test modality shift (Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, priming for legal and illegal nonwords (e.g., xyks) was observed on an identification task, and the effects dissociated from explicit memory following a levels-of-processing manipulation. Finally, in Experiment 4, significant inhibitory priming for legal nonwords was observed when a lexical-decision task was used. Results suggest that implicit memory can extend to legal and illegal nonwords. Implications for theories of implicit memory are discussed.

Implicit memory for music in Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer´s disease (AD) accounts for more than half of all the cases of dementia. T2DM is a highly prevalent chronic metabolic condition among older adults, and is considered a risk factor to develop AD and other types of dementia. Currently, the incidence of both, AD and type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) is a major public health problem in developed countries. Given the similarities between the metabolic and vascular changes occurring in the brain of diabetic patients and in AD patients, a relevant question is whether a series of main cognitive abilities, including episodic memory, working memory and executive functions are similarly impaired in AD and T2DM patients. Recent research has shown a clear dissociation between implicit and explicit memory. Results have shown intact implicit memory in both clinical groups, similar to that of healthy older adults, and impaired episodic (explicit) memory in both groups of patients, especially in ADs. At the same time, visuospatial and verbal working memory (updating and maintenance of information assessed with n-back tasks) showed significant declines in AD and T2DM but larger in ADs. Executive control assessed with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) showed similar declines in both groups of patients. Neuropsychologists and clinicians need to take into account the decline of long-term episodic memory and executive control processes in T2DM for their negative impact on treatment management. At the same time, the spared implicit memory of AD and T2DM patients could be used to support rehabilitation.

Chapter 10 Implicit learning and memory

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of emotional load of words (positive, negative and neutral) on explicit and implicit memory performances of participants with low and high alexithymia levels. The sample of the study consisted of 381 participants who were undergraduate students studying at Aydın Adnan Menderes University (M = 20.48, S = 1.73), with the age range between 18 and 26, and the second stage was consisted of 95 participants (M = 21,07, S = 2.21) with the age range between 18 and 26. Demographic Information Form and Toronto Alexithymia Scale were applied to the participants at the first stage. Participants who obtained one standard deviation below and above from Toronto Alexithymia Scale were invited to the second stage. Then the word completion task (implicit memory task) and free recall task (explicit task) were applied. The experimental design was 2 (Alexithymia Lev-el: low and high) x 3 (Emotional Use of Words: positive, negative, neutral) mixed ANOVA. The results showed significant difference between low and high alexithymia on explicit memory task. Participants with high levels of alexithymia remembered fewer words than those with low levels. There was no significant difference in neutral words on the main effect of emotional load according to alexithymia level. However, the group with high alexithymia remembered positive and negative words less than neutral words as compared to low alexithymia group. There was no significant difference in implicit memory performance according to interaction effect of alexithymia level and emotional load. Findings showed that high alexithymia level caused a deterioration on explicit memory but did not cause an impairment on implicit memory. The effect of alexithymia level on performance of remembering emotional words in explicit memory and implicit memory tasks was discussed in the light of emotional memory enhancement effect and related literature.

Neural Correlates of Perceptual/Semantic Encoding and Implicit/Explicit Retrieval: An fMRI Study T. Park (tpark@chonnam.ac.kr) Department of Psychology, Chonnam National University Kwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea The important distinction between implicit and explicit memory tests is based on intentional effort and conscious recollection experience during retrieval process (Schacter, 1987), which have been suggested to be associated with increased activity in prefrontal and medial temporal regions, respectively (Schacter & Buckner, 1998). The present study investigated brain areas activated during tasks involving implicit and explicit memory retrieval, and examined neural correlates of conscious recollection and intentional effort during memory retrieval. Methods Whole-brain functional MRI was used to examine 8 subjects during retrieval in a block-designed fMRI experiment (Fig. 1). Two incidental study conditions were manipulated: Semantic and perceptual word encoding conditions. This manipulation of level of processing (LoP) was expected to yield two retrieval conditions that differed with regard to intentional retrieval effort and successful conscious recollection: Semantic encoding yielding low level of retrieval effort with high level of retrieval success and perceptual encoding yielding high level of effort with low level of retrieval success. After studying, word fragment completion (WFC) task was presented and then cued recall (CR) task was presented with word fragment cues. PER 30S SEM 30S 30S PER 30S 30S UNS PER SEM 30S SEM 30S 30S 30S UNS PER SEM 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S 30S Fig. 1. A schematic illustration of study (above) and retrieval (below) paradigm. Critical study blocks (Semantic Encoding and Perceptual Encoding) were 30-s long separated by 30-s blocks of fixation (+). Critical retrieval blocks (Unstudied, Perceptually studied, Semantically studied) were also 30-s long separated by 30-s blocks of fixation in each of WFC and CR tasks. Results During explicit retrieval (CR) of the semantically encoded words, right inferior frontal regions (Brodman Areas 45, 47) were activated but right anterior frontal regions (BA 10) were deactivated. These results suggest different roles of different prefrontal regions during explicit (episodic) memory retrieval: BA 45/47 involved in conscious recollection and BA 10 in intentional effort (McIntosh et al., 1997). Also, parahippocampal gyrus was activated during explicit retrieval of the semantically encoded words, and this result supports the idea that medial temporal lobe is a neural correlate of conscious retrieval success. During implicit retrieval (WFC), occipital lobe (BA 17, 18 including fusiform gyrus) showed reduced activation when word fragments were primed, and this result supports the view that posterior areas are neural correlates of perceptual priming. Unexpectedly, right parahippocampal gyrus showed increased activation during implicit retrieval of the semantically encoded words. This result suggests that LoP effects which were often observed in studies of implicit memory retrieval could be the result of involuntary recollection (explicit contamination). Acknowledgements This research was supported as a Brain Neuroinformatics Research Program sponsored by Korean Ministry of Science and Technology. References McIntosh, A. R., Nyberg, L., Bookstein, F. L., & Tulving, E. (1997). Differential functional connectivity of prefrontal and medial temporal cortices during episodic memory retrieval. Human Brain Mapping, 5, 323-327. Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 501-518. Schacter, D. L., & Buckner, R. L. (1998). On the relations among priming, conscious recollection, and intentional retrieval: Evidence from neuroimaging research. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 70, 284-303.