Словникова стаття як інструмент інтерпретації лексичного значення аксіономена

Semantic studies play an essential role in uncovering linguistic meaning, both at the level of individual words and broader discourse. This article examines the relationship between lexical meaning and contextual meaning in Arabic texts through an applied semantic approach. Lexical meaning is understood as the basic meaning recorded in dictionaries, while contextual meaning refers to the meaning that emerges according to situational, cultural, and discourse contexts. This research employs a qualitative descriptive method by analyzing selected Arabic texts from both classical and modern sources using purposive sampling. The data were analyzed through several stages, including the identification of key lexical items, contextual mapping within sentences and discourse, and semantic interpretation. The findings indicate that differences in social, cultural, and discursive contexts frequently influence the shift from lexical meaning to more specific contextual meanings, sometimes even diverging from the dictionary definition. The relationship between lexical and contextual meanings is not merely linear but interactive: lexical meaning functions as the foundational basis for interpretation, while context provides the actual meaning that aligns with communicative intentions. These findings highlight that understanding Arabic texts requires an integrated analysis of lexical and contextual meanings in order to capture the full message of the language. This study is expected to contribute to the development of Arabic semantic studies, particularly in the fields of language learning, Qur’anic interpretation, and translation studies.

The current article considers the lexicological way of conveying the category of politeness in the Turkish language. It identifies the lexicological means of expressing polite-ness in the Turkish language and their methodological features. The abundance of words of respect in the Turkish language indicates that the level of expression of the category of politeness in the language is extensive. By activity and content, personal pronouns, terms of relationship, and semantic units expressing politeness are parts of lexical means of courtesy. In Turkish, the category of politeness is manifested in personal, interrogative, and also in proper pronouns. Revealed the semantic development of lexical units, thus reflecting the politeness category. The content illustrates the stylistic features’ use of pronouns that convey inconsistency. At the same time, instead of pronouns, the use of words such as bendeniz, köleniz, and kulunuz shows the high level of politeness of the speaker concerning the hearer. Moreover, there is an emphasis on the utilization of kinship terms to express the category of courtesy. As you know, the relationship between members of society is formed based on the relationship of individuals. Therefore, the transmission of politeness using kinship terms is more ancient. Some lexical units expressing good manners include the words hanım, efendi, bay, and bey. In the category of politeness, synonyms are hanımefendi, hanım, bayan, kadın, hatun, kari, which means “woman”. The sequence of the above expressions reflects the politeness level from highest to neutral. The article also discusses the endings that accompany the mentioned lexical units. These include ending with m (-im, -ım / -üm, -um) and ending with -lar, -ler. Besides their categorical function, the above endings are non-categorical and functionally occur in expressing politeness. The article depicts that morphological forms accompany lexical means and serve to supplement the content. The features of lexical and morphological means of using politeness in Turkish are revealed based on these accents.

This article examines the role of lexical and phraseological means in the expression of concepts in the Uzbek language. In contemporary linguistics, the concept is understood as a complex cognitive and cultural unit that reflects the interaction of language, thought, and national worldview. The relevance of the study is determined by the growing interest in cognitive linguistics, linguoculturology, and the semantic mechanisms through which language verbalizes culturally significant knowledge. The purpose of the article is to identify the specific functions of lexical and phraseological units in representing concepts in Uzbek and to determine their semantic, expressive, and cultural potential. The research is based on descriptive, semantic, comparative, contextual, and linguocultural methods. The analysis demonstrates that lexical units serve as primary nominative means of conceptual expression, while phraseological units deepen, intensify, evaluate, and culturally specify conceptual content. In Uzbek, concepts such as “ko‘ngil,” “or,” “vatan,” “mehnat,” “mehr,” and “sabr” are represented not only through direct lexical nomination but also through stable figurative expressions that reveal national mentality and value orientations. The findings show that conceptual expression in Uzbek is characterized by the interaction of denotative and connotative meanings, the unity of nominative and evaluative functions, and the important role of phraseological imagery in preserving collective cultural memory. The article concludes that the study of lexical and phraseological means of conceptual expression contributes to a deeper understanding of the Uzbek linguistic worldview and opens new prospects for research in semantics, phraseology, lexicography, cognitive linguistics, and language teaching methodology.

The main aim of the project is an ideographic description of modern Tatar idioms, i.e., organization of idioms according to semantic fields which are defined as a set of lexical units connected with each other by some salient semantic features. The totality of semantic fields along with the conceptual links between them construct the thesaurus of a given language, which can be represented in the form of a semantic network. The need for a new type of dictionary is motivated by the fact that, at present, there is no a comprehensive dictionary of Tatar idioms built on a thesaural principle. The idioms are explored along two revealing lines of inquiry. The first line focuses on a semantic description of idioms and their placement into appropriate taxa according to their meanings. The second line illustrates advantages of organizing a dictionary based on an analysis of corpus data. The idioms were collected from monolingual and bilingual Tatar phraseological dictionaries by continuous sampling. The illustrative materials were sampled from the Written Tatar Corpus containing 620 million words; the Tatar National Corpus (260 million words); and corpus query system Sketch Engine, its Tatar Web Corpus (102 million words). This made it possible to find all occurrences of idioms under analysis and obtain statistically representative data. The findings were processed manually. The Thesaurus is based on an inductive method, that is, from idioms to semantic fields and not from an abstract logical outline to idioms. The aim of the first stage was to describe the semantic features of each idiom and assign a descriptor or several descriptors to the idiom under consideration. At the second stage, the idioms were grouped into semantic fields/taxa in accordance with their meanings. The third stage of classification is connected with checking the correctness of the conceptual marking of idioms, which is of primary importance for regrouping the existing idiom stock. At this point, the frequency of each idiom was checked in the corpus. After idioms were classified on the basis of their dictionary definitions, it was necessary to clarify the information about their meaning and usage. For this purpose, idioms were searched in text corpora. In our case, a corpus-illustrated approach is used as a source of illustrative material. Its purpose is the selection of contexts that could be a source of paradigmatic examples. This approach is relevant in lexicographic work. There is no doubt that a dictionary in which material is drawn from the corpus is more objective, than one with illustrative examples based on linguistic intuition. The results of the research have proved that the use of illustrative materials based on corpus data presents new information on the semantic features of idioms, which contributed to the achievement of the aim. The author declares no conflicts of interests.

The aim of the research is to classify the hyphenated lexical units with participial components found in the analytical articles in British and American mass media. Scientific novelty of the research lies in dividing them into three groups and describing their lexical meaning, morphological properties and syntactic functions. The obtained results showed that hyphenated lexical units with participial components are not homogeneous and fall into three groups. Lexical units from the first group may be called compound words. They are composed of two stems, are closed or hyphenated, have unified grammatical design, perform attributive and predicative functions. Lexical units of the second group are placed between the compound words and derivatives. They are composed of a stem and a semi affix which has a generalized meaning; as a rule perform attributive function. The third group includes composites in which each component has its own lexical meaning. They don’t have unified grammatical design and perform attributive function. They are an intermediate link between the compound words and word combinations.

The work discusses modern nominative processes in English academic discourse. The research material is English neologisms taken from online articles and lexicographic sources. The article notes that the emergence of new units, the formation of new lexical meanings is connected with the constant work of the mind of a person, a cognitive process that can be understood and associated with the work of the intellect of a person. The appearance of new lexical units gives rise to an important process in comprehending the reality around us. This particular stage can be defined as the culmination of the whole process if capabilities in discourse and cognition in English; it is an essential part to study nominated objects and phenomena of reality, their characteristic features which are crucial in a person’s life. The article notes that the evaluative capabilities of neologisms, their lexical and semantic resources are revealed in a certain discursive environment as well as the emergence and consolidation in use of new lexical units themselves. Globalization influences the study of academic discourse: on the one hand, international educational programs appear, as a result of reforms the content and requirements of programs in different countries are unified; on the other hand, in the worldview of different countries, the attitude towards education, towards its value dominants is changing. The article emphasizes that the consideration of word-building models, the study of cognitive stereotypes that determine the specifics of English academic discourse can be called the most important and key sign of discursive varieties.

The problem of analytical means used for word formation and for the realization of grammatical meaning has repeatedly been the subject of study in the works of European Turkologists and Turkish linguists. However, the analysis of the relevant literature and the proposed solutions have led to the conclusion that there are many differences between the concepts and hypotheses of various authors: from a narrow understanding of analytics at the lexical and grammatical levels to a maximally broad one, where forms and formations that, in our opinion, do not correspond at all to the definition of an analytical means are improperly included in this class of means. In this work, we examine the concepts of various linguists both classical and modern, who published their works within the last decade, as they are of greatest interest because they demonstrate no significant progress in the positions and views on the problem of analytics in the system of the Turkish language over the past fifty years. The article investigates diverse lexical and grammatical forms that meet the main requirement for analytical means, which comes down to the presence of a full-fledged element containing the main lexical meaning, and an auxiliary verb that has no autonomous lexical meaning but creates a new lexeme (the so-called “compound verb”) or modifies the lexical meaning for a grammatical purpose (primarily in terms of realizing internal tense or modal meanings). The article describes the concepts regarding the genesis of analytical forms in Turkish and the Turkic languages and proposes a group classification of analytical grammatical means: periphrastic verb forms, compound verb forms, quasi-periphrastic verb forms, set verbal formations, and set phrases, which are formally correlated with analytical forms but significantly differ from them from the semantic and functional points of view. The paper concludes by outlining prospects for further research into set verbal collocations in Turkish.

Summary: This paper examines pragmatic information in the more extensive general German–Serbian (or Croatian), and Serbian (or Croatian)–German dictionaries: Osnovni rečnik nemačko-srpski i srpsko-nemački sa nemačkom i srpskom gramatikom (Đukanović et al. 2006); PONS. Univerzalni nemačko-srpski rečnik (Nikolić et al. 2010); NSSN. Nemačko- srpski i srpsko-nemački rečnik sa gramatikom (Vladović et al. 2008) and Njemačko-hrvatski univerzalni rječnik (Hansen-Kokoruš et al. 2005). Under pragmatic features of lexemes that should be marked in dictionaries, the author includes the following categories: 1) diachron- ic; 2) diatopic; 3) dia-integrative; 4) diamedial, 5) diastratic; 6) diaphasic, 7) diatextual, 8) diatechnical, 9) diafrequent, 10) diaevaluative, and 11) dianormative. The analysis points to the following: lexemes and their quoted equivalents often bear the same meaning at the lexical level, while not at the pragmatic – their use does not result in the same communicative effect with a collocutor. Poor lexicographic processing and lack of pragmatic information are distinctively visible in cases when some lexeme in the German language is marked in a diastratic and diaphasic manner. It is not only the indicators that are applied inconsistently, but other categories of information within the dictionary article do not show the marked lexemes to the user (except in the dictionary Njemačko-hrvatski univerzalni rječnik). Furthermore, culture-specific lexemes and culture-conditioned differ- ences in the use of lexical units are marginally treated in the analysed bilingual dictionaries. Although the selection of language tools depends on the context and perspective of the speaker, a good-quality general bilingual dictionary should pay more attention to informing users about the pragmatic aspects of lexemes and their typical use in accordance with the purpose of such a dictionary and target group. The key moment is that the general bilingual dictionary is directed only toward native speakers of some language – in this case the speakers of the Serbian language (or Croatian) with L2 in the German language, in order to make the information in the dictionary relevant to the target group. Additionally, the author suggests the implementation of other lexicographic means, such as examples, paraphrases, collocations, encyclopedic information, and open pragmatic comments that are transparent for the average user of the general bilingual dictionary.

Introduction. To date, in linguistics, the problem of separating figurative words from other expressive language units remains unresolved. The criteria according to which a given lexical unit is marked as figurative in an explanatory dictionary are unclear. The aim of the research is to identify and analyze the types of figurative words and expressions in the Khanty language. Materials and Methods. The study was conducted using texts in the Kazym dialect of the Khanty language, employing Wolfgang Steinitz’s “Dialektologisches und etymologisches Wörterbuch der Ostjakischen Sprache” (1966–1991). The author’s approach to the topic is based on an understanding of language as a complex, multi-level system, the individual elements of which are studied by linguists using various methods. The essence of the most important method for us lies in the systematization of concepts that describe units of the same nature and that stand in relations of variability to one another. In our case, figurative words and expressions are examined as expressive means, and their distinctive features are identified against the background of epithets, metaphors, and similes. In the course of textual analysis, all expressive means are first identified, followed by those linguistic units whose semantics contain an indication of the location of the source, the original. The semantics of words whose meanings imply the presence of a figurative component are verified using W. Steinitz’s dialectological and etymological dictionary. It is also assumed that many figurative words and expressions of the Khanty language are already recorded in this dictionary. Results and Discussion. The analysis of speech samples in the Khanty language has revealed the possibility of distinguishing figurative words and expressions from other expressive means and of deriving a specific typology of figurative units in the language. Lexical figurative units include the majority of figurative meanings of words, compound words (including those formed through the transference of meaning of one of their components), and figurative phrases (including those that are part of proverbs and sayings). Contextual figurative units are words and combinations whose figurative component arises within a given specific context. Conclusion. The practical significance of the study lies in the effectiveness of searching for figurative words and expressions in colloquial speech and literary works – that is, in those types of discourse where they are actively used. The prospects for further research are associated with accumulating sufficient material to compile a dictionary of figurative words and expressions in the Khanty language.

The work is aimed at identifying and analyzing the main humorous characteristics of the axiological concept of cynicism. The relevance of the study is predetermined by the fact that cynicism is considered to be an important value of humorous discourse. This work develops an axiological approach for studying humor which consists of defining the reaction of the audience to cynicism (humorous or non-humorous, positive or negative), distinguishing value features of the axiological concept of cynicism (based on literature on cynicism, definitions in dictionaries, and analysis of data.), analyzing the language means used to express the axiological concept of cynicism, determining the conceptual opposition of the axiological concept of cynicism in a particular context, determining the archetype of the corresponding character to assess the level of possible empathy of the audience for a humorous object. The data analyzed in this article comprise recordings and scripts of more than 70 stand-up specials which are more than 4500 minutes long and more than 500 episodes of various sitcoms which are more than 12,500 minutes long. The research showed that in many cases manifestation of cynicism was accompanied by laughter and moderate applauding while in most cases cynicism caused only laughter. Cynicism is aimed at ridiculing such anti-values as insincerity, shame, stupidity, lust. The main cognitive features of the axiological concept of cynicism within the framework of humorous discourse include honesty and rudeness. In its extreme form (dark humor), cynicism can be considered as a significant lack of humanity. The research also found that the axiological concept of cynicism within the framework of humorous discourse is actualized through insulting people, describing taboo processes and violating the norms and principles of social interaction. Insulting is carried out through a humiliating assessment of actions or states of a person, a true designation of a person and a response to socially disapproved behavior. The main taboo topics are masturbation, deurination, flatulence, death, and declaring sexual intention. The main cases of violating norms and principles of social interaction include deviation from standard patterns of behavior and ridiculing cliched statements. The axiological concept of cynicism is usually expressed through obscene words, insulting words, verbs denoting corresponding processes, new metaphors, similes, irony, etc. Moreover, in modern English sitcoms some of main characters behave cynically.

The purpose of the article is to reveal the devices to display the peculiarities of children’s behavior and activity in the work of Renй Gosсinny «Le Petit Nicolas». The object of this study is the lexical units and stylistic means to represent the children’s actions in the series of stories by Renй Gosсinny «Le Petit Nicolas». The subject is the psychological and linguistic approaches to interpret the specifics of the representation of educational and gaming activities, communication, and the interaction of junior pupils in this work. Methods of stylistic analysis of the text, which helped to find out the means to create a comic effect in the work of Renй Gosсinny «Le Petit Nicolas», comparative analysis, descriptive methods are used in this linguistic research. Identifying the writer’s humour and irony to reflect the desire of children to assert themselves in the team, to demonstrate their creative energy in everything they do, to realize their original projects is the finding of research. The main lexical stylistic means to create humor in the works of Renй Gosсinny «Le Petit Nicolas» are as follows: irony, epithets, comparison, hyperbole, personification, enumeration. The practical value of the research is to use the results of it for optimize the processes of learning the lexical stylistic means to represent the children’s behavior and activity in the works of Ukrainian and French writers as well as in real life.

The article states that in early 21st century, Slavic linguistics lexicographic arrangement of the dialect appeared to preserve the original lexical stock shaped through a national outlook and mentality, as well as cultural values of the creative Ukrainian nation. The article is aimed to represent the dialect stock of the Ukrainian lexicography in the early 21st century, as well as to stress the importance of a dialect text as a source for arranging a regional dictionary. That has accentuated the dialect text proper as a source for arranging a regional dictionary that includes specially represented patois lexical units, their registration according to the dialects and their expansion in the area under consideration. The approach enables a detailed description of the status quo, its peculiar features represented in the differentiated names, as well as peculiar stressed forms, regular and sporadic shifts in vowels and consonants in the registered lexical units. In spontaneous speech, lexical meanings are more complete and more objectively revealed, being largely enforced by new meanings in microtexts. The authors have proved that arranging dictionaries by meaningful texts complete reveals the registered units, as well as regional and local ones in spontaneous speech in various word-building, phonetic and grammatical variants in the dialect aspect. Broad comments provided for the entries are taken from dialect texts and ensure progress to a next narrative fragment promoting a way to learning other linguistic units characteristic of dialects. The dictionary grows into a hypertext, leading the reader from one registered unit to another, providing ethnic linguistic information while revealing a specific status quo interpreted by dialect speakers.

The verb lexicon can be classified in different and complementary ways; each approach faces challenges and limits. We focus on two large-scale lexical resources, WordNet (Miller et al. 1990; Fellbaum 1998) and FrameNet (Baker et al. 2003). WordNet is a semantic network where lexical meaning is represented in terms of relations among word forms. In contrast to WordNet's paradigmatically organized entries, FrameNet's Lexical Units are embedded in corpus-derived contexts, which serve as a basis for semantic distinctions. The classificatory perspective that each resource contributes to the analysis of the verb lexicon is illustrated with specific examples.

This study examines the flow of tourism research on festivals during the past 30 years and discusses the implications and future prospects of festival research. We analyzed 482 papers published in the seven top-ranked journals in the KCI citation index in the field of tourism. Through content analysis, the flow and trends were examined from three perspectives: subject, year, and research contribution. The research topics were classified into “microscopic research” focusing on the festival participants, “medianscopic research” covering the organization and characteristics of the festival, and “macroscopic research” dealing with the political, economic, social, and cultural influences surrounding the festival. The main characteristics and meanings of each period were examined by dividing them into four periods: beginning (1989~1996), leaping (1997~2004), developing (2005~2010), and reflecting (2011~present). Citation index (IF), which summarizes the number of citations for each paper in subsequent studies, was used to examine the research contribution of each journal and the research contribution of individual articles. Six key issues were proposed: ① tourism and internationalization of festivals; ② motivation, experience, and satisfaction; ③ behavioral intentions and actual behavior; ④ research on non-participants; ⑤ evaluation and promotion; and ⑥ festivals as a leisure culture in which local residents participate. Through this study, we hope that Korea's festivals will be provided a foundation for sustainable growth where festival participants and all interested parties can be happy together.

The article reveals the possibilities of verbal vocabulary in the differentiation of styles of the modern Persian language. It highlights some of the characteristic features of bookish and colloquial styles, developed with the help of verbal vocabulary. Vocabulary plays an important role in the formation and differentiation of functional styles. And, despite the fact that in the vocabulary of each language, many words are commonly used and stylistically neutral, it is with the help of certain lexical units that one functional style is distinguished from another. In each of the styles, peculiar features inherent only to it are manifested, consisting of the use of certain means and methods of expression. Considering the structural diversity of the verb, the article reveals the possibilities of each type of verb in the Persian language. Describes the individual methods used in the language to convey shades of book-written and colloquial styles. It is emphasized that both lexical and grammatical means of the language are involved in this process. In particular, it is noted that when transferring the features of book-written and colloquial styles using simple and so-called complex verbs, both simple verbs and the constituent parts of a complex verb, as well as phraseological and idiomatic phrases, participate in this process.