GAER: genetic algorithm-based energy-efficient routing protocol for infrastructure-less opportunistic networks

In recent times, different routing protocols have been proposed in the Internet of Things enabled Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (IoT-UWSNs) to explore the underwater environment for different purposes, i.e., scientific and military purposes. However, high Energy Consumption (EC), End to End (E2E) delay, low Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) and minimum network lifetime make the energy efficient communication a challenging task in Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (UWSN). The high E2E delay, EC and reliable data delivery are the critical issues, which play an important role to enhance the network throughput. So, this paper presents two energy efficient routing protocols namely: Shortest Path-Collision avoidance Based Energy Efficient Routing (SP-CBE2R) protocol and Improved-Collision avoidance Based Energy Efficient Routing (Im-CBE2R) protocol. At this end, both routing protocols minimize the probability of void hole occurrence and in return minimizes the EC and E2E delay. In both routing protocols, courier nodes are positioned at different strategic locations to keep the greedy forwarding continuous. The proposed routing protocols are also analyzed by varying the Packet Size (PS) and Data Rate (DR). Additionally, various simulations have been performed to authenticate the proposed routing protocols. Simulation results show that the proposed routing protocols outperform the baseline routing protocols in counterparts.

Delay Tolerant Networks enable data transmission in different applications, mainly in environments where communication infrastructure is missing. The existence of links is casual and even when links are created, they are short in time and unstable/unreliable in terms of connectivity. Thus, underwater network applications tend to be delay tolerant. In this paper, we propose a mobility-aware routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks. The protocol is based on Focused Beam Routing (FBR) protocol and considers nodes’ next destination location when making forwarding decisions. The routing protocol is called Destination-aware Focused Beam Routing (D-FBR) protocol and we compare its performance with FBR protocol for different FBR angles and different applications. We use Delivery Probability (DP), Average Number of Hops (ANH), Overhead Ratio (OR) and simulate our scenarios by The ONE simulator. Simulation results show that, for D-FBR protocol, when FBR angle is 30 ∘ , OR and ANH is improved by 34.5 % and 23.1 %, respectively, while DP is 6.5 % lower, compared to FBR protocol. Both D-FBR and FBR outperform Epidemic Routing Protocol.

Sparse mobile ad hoc networks are characterised by sparse node deployment and longer network partitions. This paper proposes a genetic algorithm-based secure and energy aware routing (GASER) protocol for sparse mobile ad hoc networks. By incorporating genetic algorithm with other methods, the GASER protocol selects the best path for routing the packets between source and destination in such a way that the selected path is shortest. Nodes of the selected path have highest message forwarding possibility among the other nodes of the network and have enough energy to receive and then forward messages. GASER avoids the nodes inducing grey hole/black hole attack in the network as it selects the next hop having more message forwarding probability thus making the routing protocol secure. Simulation results prove that GASER outperforms PROPHET, epidemic and spray and wait in terms of packet delivery ratio, average residual energy, overhead ratio and number of deceased nodes.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) utilizes more nodes to forward messages and information from source node to destination node and these nodes are battery-powered devices. Thus, Energy saving is always vital role of Routing Protocols which need to maximize the lifetime of WSN. Mobile ad hoc networks (MANET) are self-starting and self-constructing multichip wireless networks in which, the assembly of the system deviates vigorously. This is mainly due to the mobility of the nodes. The nodes in the network not only act as hosts but also as routers that route data from other nodes in network. MANETs require an efficient routing protocol that achieves the quality of service (QoS) mechanism. They are not considering the mobility as one constraint for those problems. Because, mobility of nodes causes frequent link failures and high error rates, so it makes difficult to maintain the desired QoS in the network. To overcome those problems, we propose mobility aware routing protocol for MANET using hybrid optimization (MARP-HO) algorithm, which maximizes the QoS in data transmission. The proposed routing protocol comprises of two phases. The clustering process consists of cluster formation and cluster head (CH) selection. First, the energy efficient clustering is done by improved animal migration optimization (IAMO) algorithm. Then, we gather multiple constraints are energy consumption, received signal strength, mobility and cooperative rate from each cluster member. The gathered constraints used to compute the node cost of each cluster member, here the highest cost node act as CH of cluster. Second, we compute routing path between source–destination using improved ant colony optimization (IACO) algorithm. The proposed MARP-HO routing protocol is compared with existing state-of-art routing protocols in terms of energy consumption, delivery ratio, loss ratio, link stability, delay, network lifetime, number of dead nodes and throughput.

In this paper, the optimization strategies of routing protocols are analysed with respect to energy utilization of sensor nodes in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). Routing Protocols are in charge of discovering and maintaining the routes in the network. Different routing mechanisms have been proposed to address energy optimization problem in sensor nodes. Clustering mechanism is one of the most efficient mechanisms which cater to the requirements of energy conservation in wireless sensor networks. To check the efficiency of different clustering scheme against modelled constraints, we select five cluster based routing protocols; Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH), Threshold Sensitive Energy Efficient sensor Network (TEEN), Stable Election Protocol (SEP), Distributed Energy Efficient Clustering (DEEC), and Hybrid Energy Efficient Distributed protocol. To validate our mathematical framework, we perform analytical simulations in MATLAB by choosing number of alive nodes, number of dead nodes, number of packets, number of cluster heads, as performance metrics.

The development of routing protocol to manage energy consumption of wireless sensor devices is one of the active research areas. The main challenge is the resource constraint (e.g. energy). In Internet of Things (IoT), the devices operate in the presence of these limitations. Thus, an energy-efficient routing protocol is required. Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Network (RPL) is already introduced to enable IoT over Wireless Sensor Network. In this paper, a modified routing protocol depending on the maximum number of parent objective function (MNP-OF) is proposed. MNP-OF uses a new node metric called Neighboring-metric (N-metric). The proposed protocol is called MNP based on Remaining Energy (MRE) that combines N-metric with the node remaining energy metric for all nodes to the root node to select the preferred path. The results showed that MRE achieved up to 94% energy saving compared to RPL protocol in medium and large scale networks, while a reduction of about 33% in average remaining energy in small scale network. MRE showed considerable reductions in the average delay and the number of dead nodes combined with improvements in throughput, number of control messages, and number of switching parents for small scale network.

In this work, we propose a human movement model that characterizes the movement pattern of different stakeholders in a post-disaster scenario in smart city. Knowledge about such mobility pattern assists in designing fast deployable smartphone based delay-tolerant network for disseminating post-disaster crucial situational information in a smart city. To the best our knowledge, this model is a major step ahead in the arena of mobility models for a post-disaster scenario in a smart city environment specifically considering the rescue operations. We provide extensive analytical foundations to strengthen the proposed mobility model. Simulation results justify that routing protocols when applied with proposed movement model, optimize network performances in terms of delivery ratio, overhead ratio and average residual energy at the cost of tolerable latency.

Opportunistic networks (OppNets) provide an infrastructure-less environment for delivering messages from source to destination. However, random nature of network topologies, unstable node connections and many other factors make routing of messages difficult. Transfer of a message from source to destination depends on the opportunity available to the carrier node for its encounter with the destination. Hence, an intelligent store-carry-forward paradigm needs to be defined which judicially transfers the message from source to the intermediate node till it reaches its destination. In this paper, a new routing protocol called Cognitive Routing Protocol for Opportunistic networks (CRPO) is proposed which makes intelligent decisions based on its past experiences and sensory inputs. It defines a neural network at each node and learns about the simulating environment with time for the successful delivery of messages. From simulation results, the authors observed that the proposed routing protocol outperforms traditional routing protocols such as Epidemic and PRoPHET, and an advanced routing protocol HBPR in terms of message delivery ratio, overhead ratio and number of messages getting dropped.

Throughout the use of the small battery-operated sensor nodes encourage us to develop an energy-efficient routing protocol for wireless sensor networks (WSNs). The development of an energy-efficient routing protocol is a mainly adopted technique to enhance the lifetime of WSN. Many routing protocols are available, but the issue is still alive. Clustering is one of the most important techniques in the existing routing protocols. In the clustering-based model, the important thing is the selection of the cluster heads. In this paper, we have proposed a scheme that uses the bubble sort algorithm for cluster head selection by considering the remaining energy and the distance of the nodes in each cluster. Initially, the bubble sort algorithm chose the two nodes with the maximum remaining energy in the cluster and chose a cluster head with a small distance. The proposed scheme performs hierarchal routing and direct routing with some energy thresholds. The simulation will be performed in MATLAB to justify its performance and results and compared with the ECHERP model to justify its performance. Moreover, the simulations will be performed in two scenarios, gateway-based and without gateway to achieve more energy-efficient results.

Intermittently connected opportunistic networks experience frequent disconnections and shorter contact durations. Therefore routing of messages towards their destinations needs to be handled from various points of view. Predictability and connectedness are two information which can be determined by participating mobile nodes of an opportunistic content distribution network using their past contacts. Epidemic or probabilistic routing protocols do not fully utilize these information to route messages towards their destinations. In this paper we describe the routing algorithm, implementation details, experiment design and the performance validation of a new, adaptive routing protocol which utilizes the predictability and connectedness information to route messages efficiently. Simulation based comparative studies show that the proposed routing protocol outperforms existing Epidemic and probabilistic routing protocols in delivering messages.

Introduction: This article is the result of the research “Energy efficient routing protocols in wireless sensor network: Examine the impact of M-SEEC routing protocols on the lifetime of WSN with an energy efficient TABU optimization routing protocol”developed in the IKG, Punjab Technical University, India in 2019.Problem: The task of finding and maintaining routes in WSNs is non-trivialsince energy restrictions and sudden changes in node status cause frequent and unpredictable changes.Objective: The objective of this paper is to propose an energy efficient heterogeneous protocolwith the help of a hybrid meta-heuristic technique.Methodology: In the hybrid meta-heuristic technique, the shortest route has been selected and the data forwarded to the sink in a minimal time span,savingenergy and making the network more stable. To evaluate the technique, a new hybrid technique has been created where the data transmission is implemented from the beginning under MATLAB 2013a.Results: The proposed technique is better than the existing ones since the remaining energy in the network is increased by 62% compared to normal nodes in MSEEC, 65% compared to advanced nodes in MSEEC and 70% compared to super nodes in MSEEC. The network lifetime was also enhanced by 70.8% compared to MSEEC.Conclusion: The proposed protocol was found to be superior based on the average residual energy.This paper proposes an efficient routing mechanism towards the energy efficient network.Originality: Through this research, a novel version of MSEEC protocol is carried out using the TABU search mechanism to generate the functions of two neighbourhoods to detect the optimum path with the aim of maximizing the network lifetime in an area of 200×200m2.Limitations: The lack of other routing techniques falls under swarm intelligence.

Due to miniaturization of hardware and availability of low-cost, low-power sensors, Wireless Sensor Network and Multimedia Sensor Network applications are increasing day by day. Each application has a specific quality of service and experience requirements. The design of routing and MAC protocol which can fulfill the requirements of the application is challenging given the constrained nature of these devices. Considerable efforts are directed towards the design of energy efficient QoS-aware routing protocols. In this article, we present state of the art review of routing protocols for Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks while addressing the challenges and providing insight into research issues.

An energy efficient routing protocol is the major concern in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). In this survey paper, we present energy efficient hierarchical routing protocols, developed from conventional LEACH routing protocol. Main focus of our study is how these extended protocols work in order to increase the life time and how quality routing protocol are improved for WSNs. Furthermore, this paper also highlights some of the issues faced by LEACH and also explains how these issues are tackled by extended versions of LEACH. We compare the features and performance issues of the selected hierarchical routing protocols.

In intermittently connected delay tolerant wireless sensor networks, sensor data generated at sensor nodes should be delivered to a sink node using opportunistic contacts between intermittently connected nodes. Since there is no stable end-to-end routing path from a source node to a sink node in intermittently connected network, an opportunistic routing protocol to deliver sensor data efficiently is needed. In this paper, an improved opportunistic routing protocol is proposed, where both current delivery predictability and maximum delivery predictability are used together to decide whether sensor data should be forwarded or not to a contact node. The proposed protocol can reduce buffer overflow and thus increase the delivery ratio, which is one of the most important performance measures in delay tolerant wireless sensor networks. The performance of the proposed routing protocol is compared with that of PRoPHET protocol and FREAK protocol, by varying buffer sizes and the number of nodes, in terms of delivery ratio, overhead ratio, and delivery latency. Performance analysis results show that the proposed protocol has better delivery ratio, overhead ratio, and delivery latency than the PRoPHET protocol and FREAK protocol have, in most considered parameter values, with appropriate selection of message dissemination thresholds.

The vital part to prolong the active time of Wireless Senor Network (WSN) is to reduce the transmission energy consumption between individual nodes/path belonging to the network. In order to minimize the transmission energy consumption in the network, a novel methodology called a “sleeping pill” packet into the network has been proposed. This technique has reduced 4% of energy consumption in a transmission experiment for 10,000 packets at -25dBm transmission power. This transmission experiment was carried out by transmitting a new packet of size 108 bytes for every 3 seconds leading to a total transmission time of 8 hours 33 minutes. This methodology has a potential to increase the lifetime of the network to about 60% for multi-hop multipath routing protocols. These measurements and comparisons are first step towards energy efficient multi-hop routing protocol in a mesh network. This study also investigates various connectivity issues and energy consumption scenario that prevail in real world situation. The experiments were done and analyzed various performance issues which arise due to deployment/distribution of the sensor for the multi-hop network according to the environment. These experiments provide more insights to reduce the packet loss and effective energy utilization of the nodes in the network. One of the focuses of this research work is on establishing the correlation between Link Quality Indicator (LQI) values to the Packet delivery ratio (PDR) based on environment. These methodical analyses play an important role in energy efficient mesh routing protocol and deployment.